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English to Croatian: Unification and the Quantum Challenge
Source text - English CHAPTER 7
Unification and the Quantum Challenge
In 1905, almost as soon as Einstein worked out the special theory of relativity, he began to lose interest in it because he set his sights on bigger game: general relativity. In 1915, the pattern repeated itself. As soon as he finished for¬mulating his theory of gravity, he began to shift his focus to an even more ambitious project: the unified field theory, which would unify his theory of gravity with Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. It was supposed to be his masterpiece, as well as the summation of science's two-thousand-year investi¬gation into the nature of gravity and light. It would give him the ability to "read the Mind of God."
Einstein was not the first to suggest a relationship between electromagnetism and gravity. Michael Faraday, working at the Royal Institution in London in the nineteenth century, performed some of the first experiments to probe the rela¬tionship between these two pervasive forces. He would, for example, drop magnets from the London Bridge and see if their rate of descent differed from that of ordinary rocks. If magnetism interacted with gravity, perhaps the magnetic field might act as a drag on gravity, making the magnets fall at a different rate. He would also drop pieces of metal from the top of a lecture room to a cushion on the floor, trying to see if the descent could induce an electric current in the metal. All his experiments produced negative results. However, he noted, "They do not shake my strong feeling of the existence of a relation between gravity and electricity, though they give no proof that such a relation exists." Furthermore, Riemann, who founded the theory of curved space in any dimension, believed strongly that both gravity and electromagnetism could be reduced to purely geometric arguments. Unfortunately, he did not have any physical pic¬ture or field equations, so his ideas went nowhere.
Einstein once summarized his attitude toward unification by comparing marble and wood. Marble, thought Einstein, described the beautiful world of geometry, in which surfaces warped smoothly and continuously. The universe of stars and galaxies played out their cosmic game on the beautiful mar¬ble of space-time. Wood, on the other hand, represented the chaotic world of matter, with its jungle of subatomic parti¬cles, its nonsensical rules for the quantum. This wood, like gnarled vines, grows in unpredictable and random ways. New particles being discovered in the atom made the theory of matter quite ugly. Einstein saw the defect in his equations. The fatal flaw was that wood determined the structure of the marble. The amount of bending of space-time was deter¬mined by the amount of wood at any point.
Thus, to Einstein, his strategy was clear: to create a theory of pure marble, to eliminate the wood by reformulating it solely in terms of marble. If the wood itself could be shown to be made of marble, then he would have a theory that was purely geometric. For example, a point particle is infinitely tiny, having no extension in space. In field theory, a point particle is represented by a "singularity," a point where the field strength goes to infinity. Einstein wanted to replace this singularity with a smooth deformation of space and time. Imagine, for example, a kink or knot in a rope. From a dis¬tance, the kink may look like a particle, but close-up the kink or knot is nothing but a wrinkle in the rope. Similarly, Einstein wanted to create a theory that was purely geometric and had no singularities whatsoever. Subatomic particles, like the electron, would emerge as kinks or as some kind of small wrinkle on the surface of space-time. The fundamental prob¬lem, however, was that he lacked a concrete symmetry and principle that could unity electromagnetism and gravity. As we saw earlier, the key to Einstein's thinking was unification through symmetry. With special relativity, he had the picture that guided him constantly, running next to a light beam. This picture revealed the fundamental contradiction between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell's fields. From this, he was able to extract a principle, the constancy of the speed of light. Last, he was able to formulate the symmetry that unified space and time, the Lorentz transformations.
Similarly, with general relativity, he had a picture, that gravity was caused by the warping of space and time. This picture exposed the fundamental contradiction between Newton's gravity (where gravity traveled instantaneously) and relativity (where nothing can go faster than light). From the picture, he extracted a principle, the equivalence princi¬ple, that accelerating and gravitating frames obeyed the same laws of physics. Last, he was able to formulate the generalized symmetry that described accelerations and gravity, which was general covariance.
The problem facing Einstein now was truly daunting, because he was working at least fifty years ahead of his time. In the 1920s, when he began work on the unified field theory, the only established forces were the gravitational and electro¬magnetic forces. The nucleus of the atom had only been dis¬covered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford, and the force that held it together was still shrouded in mystery. But without an understanding of the nuclear forces, Einstein lacked a crucial part of the puzzle. Furthermore, no experiment or observa¬tion exposed a contradiction between gravity and electromag¬netism that would be the hook Einstein could grab onto.
Hermann Weyl, a mathematician who was inspired by Einstein's search for a unified field theory, made the first seri¬ous attempt in 1918. At first, Einstein was very impressed. "It is a masterful symphony;' he wrote. Weyl expanded Einstein's old theory of gravity by adding the Maxwell field directly into the equations. Then he demanded that the equations be covariant under even more symmetries than Einstein's origi¬nal theory, including scale transformations (i.e., transforma¬tions that expand or contract all distances). However, Einstein soon found some strange anomalies in the theory. For example, if you traveled in a circle and came back to your original point, you would find that you were shorter but had the same shape. In other words, lengths were not preserved. (In Einstein's theory, lengths could also change, but they remained the same if you came back to where you started.) Time would also be shifted in a closed path, but this would violate our understanding of the physical world. For exam¬ple, it meant that if vibrating atoms were moved around a complete circle, they would be vibrating at a different fre¬quency when they came back. Although Weyl's theory seemed ingenious, it had to be abandoned because it did not fit the data. (In hindsight, we can see that the Weyl theory had too much symmetry. Scale invariance is apparently a symmetry that nature does not use to describe our visible universe.)
In 1923, Arthur Eddington also caught the bug. Inspired by Weyl's work, Eddington (and many others after him) tried his hand at a unified field theory. Like Einstein, he created a theory based on the Ricci curvature, but the concept of dis¬tance did not appear in the equations. In other words, it was impossible to define meters or seconds in his theory; the theory was "pre-geometrical." Only in the last step would distance finally appear as a consequence of his equations. Electromagnetism was supposed to emerge as a piece of the Ricci curvature. The physicist Wolfgang Pauli did not like this theory at all, stating that it had "no significance for physics." Einstein also panned it, thinking it had no physical content.
But what really rocked Einstein to the core was a paper that he saw in 1921, written by an obscure mathematician, Theodor Kaluza, from the University of Konigsberg. Kaluza suggested that Einstein, who had pioneered the concept of the fourth dimension, add yet another dimension to his equa¬tions. Kaluza began by reformulating Einstein's own general relativity in five dimensions (four dimensions of space and one dimension of time). This takes no work at all, since Einstein's equations could easily be formulated in any dimen¬sion. Then, in a few lines, Kaluza showed that if the fifth dimension is separated from the other four, Einstein's equa¬tions emerged, along with Maxwell's equations! In other words, Maxwell's equations, the horrible set of eight partial differential equations memorized by every engineer and physicist, can be reduced to waves traveling on the fifth dimension. To put it another way, Maxwell's theory was already hidden inside Einstein's theory if relativity were extended to five dimensions.
Einstein was surprised by the sheer audacity and beauty of Kaluza's work. He wrote Kaluza, "The idea of achieving [unification] by means of a five-dimensional cylinder world never dawned on me .... At first glance, I liked your idea enor¬mously." A few weeks later, after studying the theory, he wrote, "The formal unity of your theory is startling." In 1926, the mathematician Oskar Klein generalized Kaluza's work and speculated that the fifth dimension was unobservable because it was small and possibly linked to the quantum the¬ory. Kaluza and Klein were thus proposing an entirely differ¬ent approach to unification. To them, electromagnetism was nothing but vibrations rippling along the surface of a small fifth dimension.
Translation - Croatian 7. POGLAVLJE
Unifikacija i kvantni izazov
1905. godine, gotovo odmah nakon što je Einstein razvio specijalnu teoriju relativnosti, počeo je gubiti interes za nju budući da je bacio oko na nešto veće: opću relativnost. 1915. godine priča se ponovila. Čim je završio formuliranje svoje teorije gravitacije, počeo se okretati još ambicioznijem projektu: unificiranoj teoriji polja koja bi ujednila njegovu teoriju gravitacije s Maxwellovom teorijom elektromagnetizma. To je trebalo biti njegovo remek-djelo, te ujedno i sumiranje dvije tisuće dugoga znanstvenog istraživanja prirode gravitacije i svjetla. Ono mu je trebalo omogućiti „čitanje Božjega uma“.
Einstein nije bio prvi koji je iznio mogućnost postojanja veze između elektromagnetizma i gravitacije. Michael Faraday koji je u devetnaestom stoljeću radio na Kraljevskom institutu u Londonu, izveo je neke od prvih eksperimenata kako bi ispitao vezu između ove dvije osnovne sile. Bacao bi, na primjer, magnete s Londonskog mosta želeći ustanoviti razlikuje li se njihova brzina slobodnog pada od brzine slobodnog pada običnog kamenja. Da je magnetizam uzajamno djelovao s gravitacijom, možda bi magnetsko polje moglo poslužiti kao kočnica za gravitaciju dovodeći do toga da magneti padaju različitom brzinom. Također je znao bacati komade metala s vrha predavaone na jastuk koji se nalazio na podu pokušavajući ustanoviti može li pad inducirati električnu struju u metalu. Svi njegovi eksperimenti polučili su negativne rezultate. Ipak, zapisao je, „Oni ne dovode u pitanje moj snažan osjećaj da postoji veza između gravitacije i elektriciteta, premda ne pružaju dokaze o postojanju takve veze.“ Nadalje, Riemann koji je utemeljio teoriju zakrivljenog svemira, snažno je vjerovao da se i gravitacija i elektromagnetizam mogu svesti na čisto geometrijske dokaze. Nažalost, nije imao fizikalnu sliku ili jednadžbe polja, tako da njegove ideje nisu nikamo vodile.
Einstein je jednom prilikom rezimirao svoj stav prema unifikaciji uspoređujući mramor i drvo. Mramor je, smatrao je Einstein, predstavljao čaroban svijet geometrije, u kojem su se površine glatko i neprekidno iskrivljavale. Svemir sačinjen od zvijezda i galaksija igrao je svoju kozmičku igru na predivnom mramoru prostora-vremena. Drvo je, s druge strane, predstavljalo kaotični svijet materije, sa svojom džunglom subatomskih čestica, svojim pravilima koja su bila besmislena za kvantum. To drvo, poput kvrgave loze, raste na nepredvidiv i nasumičan način. Nove čestice koje su otkrivene u atomu učinile su teoriju materije prilično ružnom. Einstein je uvidio propuste u svojim jednadžbama. Kobna pogreška bila je da drvo određuje strukturu mramora. Količinu savijanja prostora-vremena određivala je količina drva u bilo kojoj točki.
Stoga je, za Einsteina, strategija bila jasna: stvoriti teoriju čistoga mramora, eliminirati drvo na način da ga se preformulira isključivo kroz prizmu mramora. Kada bi se samo drvo moglo prikazati kao mramorno, u tom bi slučaju imao teoriju koja bi bila čisto geometrijska. Na primjer, točkasta čestica je neizmjerno sićušna i nema svoju realizaciju u prostoru. U teoriji polja, točkasta čestica predstavljena je pomoću „singularnosti“, točke na kojoj snaga polja odlazi u beskonačnost. Einstein je tu singularnost želio zamijeniti glatkom deformacijom prostora i vremena. Zamislite na primjer sfrkano mjesto ili čvor na užetu. Iz daljine, čvor može izgledati poput čestice, no izbliza to nije ništa drugo no nabor na užetu. Slično tomu, Einstein je želio stvoriti teoriju koja bi bila čisto geometrijska i koja nema nikakvih singularnosti. Subatomske čestice, poput elektrona, pojavile bi se kao čvorovi ili kao mali nabori na površini prostora-vremena. Ipak, temeljni problem sastojao se u tome što on nije imao konkretnu simetriju i princip koji bi mogao ujediniti elektromagnetizam i gravitaciju. Kao što smo već ranije vidjeli, ključni dio Einsteinovog razmišljanja bila je unifikacija pomoću simetrije. Kod specijalne relativnosti, imao je ideju koja ga je stalno vodila a koja se nalazila uz bok zrake svjetlosti. Ta je ideja otkrila temeljnu kontradikciju između Newtonove mehanike i Maxwellovih polja. Iz toga je mogao izvesti princip, konstantnost brzine svjetlosti. Naposljetku, formulirao je simetriju koja je ujedinjavala prostor i vrijeme, Lorentzove transformacije.
Slično tomu, kod opće relativnosti imao je ideju da gravitaciju uzrokuje zakrivljenost prostora i vremena. Ta je ideja razotkrila temeljnu kontradikciju između Newtonove gravitacije (prema kojoj je gravitacija putovala trenutačno) i relativnosti (prema kojoj ništa ne putuje brže od svjetlosti). Iz te je ideje izveo princip, princip ekvivalencije, prema kojem okviri ubrzanja i gravitacije slijede iste zakone fizike. Naposljetku, formulirao je opću simetriju koja je opisala ubrzanja i gravitaciju, što je bila opća kovarijanca.
Problem s kojim će se Einstein suočiti bio je istinski zastrašujuć budući da je on djelovao barem pedeset godina ispred svoga vremena. 1920-tih godina kada je započeo svoj rad na unificiranoj teoriji polja, jedine priznate sile bile su gravitacijska i magnetska sila. Jezgru atoma tek je 1911. otkrio Ernest Rutherford, a sila koja ju je držala na okupu bila je još uvijek obavijena velom tajne. No bez razumijevanja nuklearnih sila, Einsteinu je nedostajao ključni dio slagalice. Nadalje, niti jedan eksperiment ili promatranje nisu predstavili kontradikciju između gravitacije i elektromagnetizma za koju bi se Einstein mogao uhvatiti.
Hermann Weyl, matematičar inspiriran Einsteinovom potragom za unificiranom teorijom polja, načinio je prvi ozbiljan pokušaj 1918. godine. U početku, Einstein je bio vrlo impresioniran. „To je maestralna simfonija“, zapisao je. Weyl je proširio Einsteinovu staru teoriju gravitacije dodavši Maxwellovo polje izravno u jednadžbe. Potom je tražio da jednadžbe budu kovarijantne pod čak većim simetrijama nego u Einsteinovoj originalnoj teoriji, uključujući transformacije skaliranja (tj. transformacije koje proširuju ili sažimaju sve udaljenosti). Ipak, Einstein je ubrzo otkrio čudne anomalije u ovoj teoriji. Na primjer, ako biste putovali u krug i vratili se na početnu točku, otkrili biste da ste niži ali da imate isti oblik. Drugim riječima, duljine nisu sačuvane. (Prema Einsteinovoj teoriji, duljine se također mogu promijeniti ali one ostaju iste ako se biste se vratili na mjesto s kojega ste krenuli.) Vrijeme bi također bilo skrenuto u zatvorenu putanju, ali to bi narušilo naše razumijevanje fizičkoga svijeta. Na primjer, to je značilo da bi, u slučaju da se vibrirajuće atome pomakne za cijeli krug, oni vibrirali na različitoj frekvenciji kada bi se vratili. Premda je Weylova teorija izgledala inventivna, morala je biti odbačena budući da se nije uklapala. (Gledajući unatrag, možemo primijetiti da je Weylova teorija sadržavala previše simetrije. Invarijantnost na transformaciju skaliranja je očigledno simetrija koju priroda ne koristi kako bi opisala naš vidljivi svemir.)
1923. godine, Arthur Eddington se također zarazio idejom. Nadahnut Weylovim radom, Eddington se (a i mnogi nakon njega) okušao u unificiranoj teoriji polja. Kao i Einstein, kreirao je teoriju temeljenu na Riccijevoj zakrivljenosti, ali se koncept udaljenosti nije pojavio u jednadžbama. Drugim riječima, u njegovoj je teoriji bilo nemoguće definirati metre ili sekunde; teorija je bila „predgeometrijska.“ Samo se pri zadnjem koraku udaljenost konačno pojavila kao posljedica njegovih jednažbi. Elektromagnetizam se trebao pojaviti kao dio Riccijeve iskrivljenosti. Fizičaru Wolfgang Pauliju ova se teorija nije uopće dopala te je naveo da „nije od nikakvog značaja za fiziku.“ Einstein ju je također oštro kritizirao smatrajući da nema fizikalni sadržaj.
No ono što je zaista do srži šokiralo Einsteina bio je članak koji je ugledao 1921. godine, a koji je napisao opskurni matematičar po imenu Theodr Kaluza sa Sveučilišta u Königsbegu. Kaluza je predložio da Einstein, koji je uveo koncept četvte dimenzije, svojim jednadžbama pridoda još jednu dimenziju. Kaluza je krenuo na način da je preformulirao Einsteinovu opću relativnost u pet dimenzija (četiri dimenzije prostora i jedna dimenzija vremena). Takvo što ne zahtjeva nikakav posao budući da bi se Einsteinove jednadžbe mogle jednostavno formulirati u bilo kojoj dimenziji. Potom je u nekoliko redaka Kaluza pokazao da se, ako se peta dimenzija odvoji od ostale četiri, pojavljuju Einsteinove jednadžbe, zajedno s Maxwellovim jednadžbama! Drugim riječima, Maxwellove jednadžbe, taj užasni niz diferencijalnih jednadžbi koje mora zapamititi svaki inženjer i fizičar, mogu se svesti na valove koji putuju petom dimenzijom. Preformulirano, Maxwellova teorija bila bi već skrivena unutar Einsteinove teorije kad bi se relativnost proširila na pet dimenzija.
Einstein je bio iznenađen drskošću i ljepotom Kaluzinog rada. Napisao mu je: „Ideja da se postigne [uni¬fikacija] pomoću pet-dimenzionalnog cilindričnog svijeta mi nije nikada sinula.... Na prvi pogled, iznimno mi se svidjela Vaša ideja.“ Nekoliko tjedana kasnije, nakon što je proučavao teoriju, napisao je „Formalno jedinstvo Vaše teorije je zapanjujuće.“ 1926. godine, matematičar Oskar Klein uopćio je Kaluzino djelo i pretpostavljao je da se peta dimenzija ne može uočiti budući da je malena i vjerojatno povezana s kvantnom teorijom. Kaluza i Klein na taj su način predlagali posve drugačiji pristup unifikaciji. Za njih, elektromagnetizam nije bio ništa drugo do vibracija koje se mreškaju po površini malene pete dimenzije.
English to Croatian: The Cold War - A New History
Source text - English THE CENTERPIECE of détente was the Soviet-American effort to limit the nuclear arms race. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, which got under way late in 1969, had by 1972 produced a Soviet-American agreement capping the number of intercontinental and submarine¬ - launched ballistic missiles each side could deploy, as well as a treaty banning anything other than symbolic defenses against such missiles. Signed by Nixon and Brezhnev at the Moscow summit, the SALT I accords, as they came to be called, were significant for several reasons. They reflected recognition on the part of both superpowers that a con¬tinuing arms race could only make them less secure. They represented an acknowledgment on the part of the United States that the Soviet Union was now its equal in nuclear capabilities, and in some categories of weaponry its superior. They legitimized the logic of Mutual Assured Destruction: that remaining defenseless against a nuclear attack was the best way to keep one from happening. And they accepted satellite reconnaissance as a method of verifying compliance with these agree¬ments.
But the SALT process, like détente itself, also evaded issues. One was nuclear arms reduction: the Moscow agreements froze existing ICBM and SLBM deployments, but did nothing to cut them back, or even to restrict the number of warheads each missile could carry. Imbalances were also a problem: SALT I left the Soviet Union well ahead of the United States in ICBMs, and with a smaller lead in SLBMs. The Nixon administration justified this asymmetry on the grounds that American missiles were more accurate than their Soviet counterparts and in large part equipped with multiple warheads. It also pointed out that SALT I placed no restrictions on long-range bombers, where the Americans had long enjoyed superiority, or on the shorter-range bombers and missiles they had placed on aircraft carriers and with NATO allies, or on the nu¬clear capabilities of Great Britain and France.
The complexity of that argument made it difficult to sell to the United States Congress, however, which found it hard to understand why it should approve Soviet superiority in any category of strategic weaponry. That left an opening for Senator Henry Jackson - whose Jackson-Vanik amendment would soon strain Soviet-American rela¬tions in another way - to secure passage of a resolution requiring that all subsequent arms control agreements provide for numerical equality in all weapons systems covered. Jackson's resolution complicated the next round of negotiations - SALT II -because Soviet and American military planners had deliberately chosen not to duplicate each other's strategic arsenals. Now the negotiators would have to find a way, nonetheless, to impose equivalent limits on weapons systems that were not themselves equivalent. “How to accomplish it,” Kissinger recalled, “was generously left to my discretion.”
It had taken two and a half years to negotiate the 1972 SALT I agreements, which tolerated asymmetries. The SALT II negotiations, which could not, were still dragging on when the Ford administration left office five years later. The Congress - and, increasingly, the Defense Department and the strategic studies community - was no longer will¬ing to trust Kissinger to continue making the kinds of trade-offs among weapons systems that had produced SALT I: his methods, critics charged, had been too secret, too prone to miscalculation, too trusting that the Russians would keep their promises. SALT II was a more open process, but it was also for just this reason a less successful one.
Translation - Croatian II.
GLAVNA KARAKTERISTIKA detanta bilo je sovjetsko-američko nastojanje da se ograniči utrka u nuklearnom naoružanju. Pregovori o ograničavanju strateškog naoružanja koji su se održavali krajem 1969. godine, do 1972. rezultirali su sovjetsko-američkim sporazumom koji je ograničio broj interkontinentalnih balističkih projektila i projektila lansiranih sa podmornica koje svaka strana može ispaliti, kao i sporazumom koji je zabranio bilo kakvu obranu od takvih projektila osim one simboličke. Sporazumi nazvani SALT I, koje su na Moskovskom summitu potpisali Nixon i Brežnjev, bili su značajni iz nekoliko razloga. Oni su odražavali uviđanje obje velesile da bi ih nastavak utrke u naoružanju samo mogao učiniti manje sigurnima. Predstavljali su priznanje Sjedinjenih Država da im je Sovjetski Savez sada ravnopravan u nuklearnim sposobnostima, a u nekim kategorijama naoružanja čak i superiorniji. Sporazumi su ozakonili logiku Uzajamnog sigurnog uništenja: da je biti bez obrane u slučaju nuklearnog napada najbolji način da do njega niti ne dođe. Također su prihvatili satelitsko izviđanje kao metodu koja potvrđuje pridržavanje ovih sporazuma.
No, SALT sporazum je, baš kao i sam detant, jednako tako izbjegavao probleme. Jedan od problema bio je smanjenje nuklearnog naoružanja: Moskovski sporazumi zamrznuli su postojeće razmještanje interkontinentalnih balističkih projektila ICBM i balističkih projektila lansiranih s podmornice SLBM, no nisu učinili ništa kako bi smanjili njihov broj ili barem ograničili broj bojnih glava koje svaki projektil može nositi. Neravnoteža je također predstavljala problem: SALT I stavio je Sovjetski Savez daleko ispred Sjedinjenih Država po pitanju ICBM projektila, te u manje vodstvo po pitanju SLBM projektila. Nixonova je administracija opravdavala ovaj nesrazmjer podatkom da su američki projektili precizniji od sovjetskih, te su uglavnom opremljeni višestrukim bojevim glavama. Također su naglasili da SALT ne postavlja ograničenja po pitanju bombardera dugoga dometa, gdje su Amerikanci odavno uživali superiornost, ili po pitanju bombardera i projektila kratkoga dometa postavljenih na nosače aviona i kod NATO saveznika, kao i kod ograničenja nuklearnih mogućnosti Velike Britanije i Francuske.
Kompleksnost ovog argumenta teško se mogla prodati američkom Kongresu kojem nije bilo lako shvatiti zbog čega bi on trebao potvrditi sovjetsku superiornost u bilo kojoj kategoriji strateškog naoružanja. To je ostavilo prostora senatoru Henryju Jacksonu-čiji će Jackson-Vanikov amandman uskoro zategnuti sovjetsko-američke odnose na drugi način-kako bi osigurao prolaz rezoluciji koja je zahtijevala da svi budući sporazumi o kontroli naoružanja osiguravaju brojčanu jednakost u svim sustavima naoružanja na koje se odnose. Jacksonova rezolucija zakomplicirala je sljedeći krug pregovora - SALT II - budući da su sovjetski i američki vojni stratezi namjerno odlučili ne duplicirati strateški arsenal druge strane. U toj su situaciji pregovarači ipak trebali iznaći način da postave jednaka ograničenja na sustave naoružanja koji sami po sebi nisu bili jednaki. „Postizanje tog cilja,“ prisjećao se Kissinger „bilo je velikodušno prepušteno mojoj odluci.“
Bile su potrebne dvije i pol godine dok se 1972. nisu postigli SALT sporazumi koji su tolerirali nejednakosti. Pregovori SALT II, koji to nisu tolerirali, još su se otezali u trenutku kada je, pet godina kasnije, Fordova administracija otišla s vlasti. Kongres - a posebice Ministarstvo obrane i zajednica zadužena za strateške studije - više nisu bili spremni povjeriti Kissingeru da nastavi s ustupcima vezanim uz sustave naoružanja kakvi su proizveli sporazum SALT I: njegove su metode, optuživali su kritičari bile pretajnovite, suviše podložne krivim procjenama, previše sklone vjerovanju da će Rusi održati svoja obećanja. Sporazum SALT II bio je otvoreniji, no upravo je iz tog razloga bio i manje učinkovit.
Croatian to English: Razvoj djece u socijalnom kontekstu
Source text - Croatian 2. Vršnjački kontekst razvoja
Čovjekova odraslost očituje se u uspješnosti odabira prijatelja
Ralph Waldo Emerson (američki pjesnik i esejist,19.st.)
Svijet vršnjaka je vrlo važno socijalno okruženje u kojem dijete živi i ra¬zvija se. Dijete većinu slobodnog vremena provodi s vršnjacima. Procesom socijalizacije dijete uči ponašati se u vršnjačkoj skupini, uči poštovati pravila, nositi se s porazom i pobjedom. U vršnjačkoj skupini dijete zadovoljava potre¬bu za intimnošću, formira sliku o sebi, stječe socijalne vještine, uči pomagati, dijeliti i surađivati. Uz roditelje i nastavnike vršnjaci igraju važnu ulogu u razvoju i prilagodbi djeteta. Tijekom razvoja vršnjački se odnosi mijenjaju. Sposobnost formiranja bliskih, intimnih odnosa zavisi o socijalnim vještinama prepoznavanja verbalnih i neverbalnih znakova tijekom interakcije.
Zanimanje razvojnih psihologa za ulogu svijeta vršnjaka u razvoju rela¬tivno je novo, a zapaža se tek 70-ih godina 20. st. Možemo razlikovati tri faze u istraživanjima vršnjačkih odnosa. lako 1902. godine Cooly govori o velikom utjecaju vršnjaka na razvoj i prilagodbu (Parker, Rubin, Price i DeRo¬sier, 1995.), rezultati prvih radova uglavnom su normativnog ideskriptivnog karaktera. Slijedi period u istraživanju vršnjačkih odnosa usmjeren na pro¬učavanje individualnih razlika i razvoj metodologije istraživanja (Renshaw, 1981.). U tom vremenu nastaje Morenova sociornetrijska tehnika mjerenja socijalnog statusa u skupini. Sullivan 1950-ih godina postavlja interpersonal¬nu teoriju u kontekstu koje ističe ulogu prijateljstva u osjećaju usamljenosti kod adolescenata. Međutim, sve do 70-ihgodina nema sistematskih teorijskih istraživanja vršnjačkih skupina. Prekretnicu u istraživanju vršnjačkih odnosa čini teorijski model vršnjačkih odnosa Bukowskog i Hoze (1989.) i čitav niz istraživanja u svrhu testiranja spomenutog modela. Mnoga od istraživanja potaknuta su hipotezom o važnosti vršnjačkih odnosa za razvoj djeteta. Oso¬bito se ističu istraživanja Willarda Hartupa (90-e godine 20. st.), u kojima autor s kolegama proučava ulogu vršnjaka na različite aspekte prilagodbe. Potvrđena je hipoteza o direktnoj vezi između kvalitete vršnjačkih odnosa i razvoja dječje osobnosti, socijalnog ponašanja i kognitivnog razvoja (Ladd, 1989.). Osobit naglasak stavljen je na identifikaciju aspekata socijalne kom¬petencije i njihova utjecaja na zadovoljenje socijalnih potreba djeteta (Ladd, 1999.). Treće razdoblje u istraživanjima vršnjačkih odnosa obilježeno je istra¬živanjem stadija vršnjačkih odnosa, efekata nedostatka socijalnih vještina i razradom tehnika usmjerenih na pomoć djeci koja imaju poteškoća u procesu socijalizacije (Ladd, 1999.). No unatoč danas već opsežnoj literaturi iz ovog područja na mnoga pitanja o prirodi i efektima dječjih vršnjačkih odnosa nema odgovora.
U ovom poglavlju osvrnut ćemo se na nekoliko ključnih tema. Prva je spo¬menuti teorijski model vršnjačkih odnosa Bukowskog i Hoze (1989.), koji će omogućiti raščlambu dviju temeljnih dimenzija odnosa u vršnjačkoj skupini: popularnosti i prijateljstva. Nadalje, osvrnut ćemo se na razvojnu dimenziju vršnjačkih odnosa, zatim na funkciju prijateljstva i odnosa s vršnjacima u razvoju.
Translation - English 2. The peer Group as a Context for Development
A man's growth is seen in the successive choirs of his friend
Ralph Waldo Emerson (American poet and essayist, 19th c.)
The world of peers is a very important social environment in which a child lives and develops. The child spends most of its time with its peers. Through the process of socialization, the child learns how to behave in a group of peers, how to respect the rules and how to deal with both defeat and victory. In a group of peers, the child fulfills its need for intimacy, forms a perception about itself, adopts social skills, and learns to help, share and cooperate. Together with parents and teachers, peers play an important role in the child's development and adjustment. In the course of development, the relationships among peers undergo certain changes. The ability to form close, intimate relationships depends on the social skills of recognizing the verbal and non-verbal signs during the interaction process.
Developmental psychologists did not express their interest in the role of the world of peers in the process of development until relatively recently, not earlier than 1970s. It is possible to distinguish between three phases in the research of peer relationships. Although in 1902 Cooly spoke about the significant influence of peers on development and adjustment (Parker, Rubin, Price and DeRosier, 1995), the results of early studies were mainly normative and descriptive in nature. They were followed by a period in which the research of peer relationships was focused on studying individual differences and the development of a research methodology (Renshaw, 1981). That was when Moren's sociometric technique for measuring social status within a group came into being. In the 1950s, Sullivan presented an interpersonal theory in context of which he stressed the role of friendship in the feeling of loneliness experienced by adolescents. However, it was not until the 1970s that any systematic theoretical research of peer groups was conducted. The theoretical model of peer relationships presented by Bukowski and Hoze (1989) signalled a turning point in the research of peer relationships, together with the whole range of additional studies conducted with the purpose of testing this model. Many of those studies were initiated by the hypothesis on the importance of peer relationships for child development. Especially prominent were the studies conducted by Willard Hartup (during the 1990s), in which the author, together with his colleagues, observes the role of the peer group in various aspects of adjustment. There has been a confirmation of the hypothesis on a direct correlation between the quality of peer relationships and child's personality development, social behaviour and cognitive development (Ladd, 1989). A special emphasis was placed on identifying the aspects of social competence and their influence on fulfilling the child's social needs (Ladd, 1999). The third phase in the research of peer relationships was marked by the research of different stages of peer relationships, the effect produced by the lack of social skills, and development of techniques aimed at helping children with difficulties in the socialization process (Ladd, 1999). Yet, despite the extensive literature on this subject matter, many questions regarding the nature and effects of children's peer relationships still remain unanswered.
In this chapter, we shall take a look at some key topics. The first one is the abovementioned theoretical model of peer relationships presented by Bukowski and Hoza (1989), which will enable us to discern between two basic dimensions of relationships existing within a peer group: popularity and friendship. Furthermore, we shall take a look at developmental dimension of peer relationships, the role of friendship and peer relationships in the process of child development.
Croatian to English: Filmske vrste i rodovi
Source text - Croatian 3. FILMSKI ŽANROVI
BROJNI su filmski autori ostvarili zavidne umjetničke rezulta¬te s odmakom se pozivajući na naslijeđe tradicionalno popu¬larnih žanrova, primjerice braća Coen ili Pedro Almodovar, koji u mnogim od najboljih ostvarenja kombinira obrasce melodrame i komedije (katkada i još pokojeg žanra), a mno¬gi su umjetnici (R. Altman, S. Peckinpah, W. Wenders i drugi) ugled stekli upravo preispitivanjem granica žanrova. Uostalom, programatsko remek-djelo filmskog moderniz¬ma, Godardov Do posljednjeg daha, posvećen je „siromaš¬nom“ američkom filmskom studiju (tvornici B-filmova), a velik se dio fabule tog filma može shvatiti i kao parafraza (te posveta) ne nužno američkoga gangsterskog filma. Sa¬ma činjenica promjene žanra usred priče Od sumraka do zore (From Dusk Till Dawn, 1996) nakratko je bila potakla mnoge kritičare na špekulacije o golemim potencijalima redatelja Roberta Rodrigueza .
Kad je riječ o filmovima, nadalje, pogotovo ako pripadaju rodu igranog filma, žanrovske se strukture često dovode u prvi plan. Suvremene su kritike tako često navodile da je Planina Brokeback (Brokeback Mountain, A. Lee, 2005) ne¬kakav gay western (ili barem kritička revizija žanra vesterna), premda je jedini argument da taj film ima išta zajedničkog s vesternom ikonografski - junaci nose šešire i traperice, jašu konje, nose puške ... Pa ipak, tijekom gledanja filma teško se mogu uočiti etička pitanja ključna za tipičnu društvenu zajednicu svijeta vesterna, a nema govora ni o organiziranju akcije tipične za svijet tog žanra. Umjesto transporta stoke, potjere, opsade i sličnih aktivnosti, ovi se stočari (koji k to¬me čuvaju ovce a ne krave!) prepuštaju aktivnostima kojima se klasični vestern nikada ne bi prikazivački i problemski bavio. U središtu svijeta Planine Brokeback očito su emocije te ono što junaci jedan drugom pružaju i ono što očekuju jedan od drugoga, odnosno jaz između tih vrijednosti.
Iz ovog slučaja (a sličnih nije malo) dalo bi se zaključiti kako, premda sveprisutni i iznimno živi, razgovori i analize žanrovskih struktura (te određivanje žanrovske pripadno¬sti filmova) često dovode do zbrke mjesto da unose red u filmsku ponudu. No, to nipošto ne znači da treba odustati od razmišljanja o žanrovima; to samo znači da je potreban oprez u analizi, a ionako se o svakom, a ne samo o film¬skom fenomenu često piše na krajnje neprimjeren način. Opusi hermetičnih pjesnika pokušavaju se tako približiti široj publici isticanjem za njihovo stvaralaštvo sporednih, primjerice erotskih tema, slikarske veličine analizirane su kroz živopisnu biografiju (obično punu alkohola, bolesti i seksa), pa ne čudi da se filmove analizira pomoću navodne dnevne idelogije autora, ili kroz prizmu pripadnosti žanru s kojim baš nema mnogo toga zajedničkog.
Kada se, međutim, pokušava razabrati što kategorija filmskog žanra uopće jest, najbolje je započeti sa žanrovi-ma igranog filma, jer se u tom filmskom rodu žanrovske komponente najjasnije ocrtavaju, žanrovske su strukture - premda dinamične, stalno nastajuće i nestajuće u međuodnosu stvaraoca, industrije i publike - ipak najčvršće i naj¬uočljivije. Na prvi je pogled svakako privlačno pokušati odrediti žanrove igranoga filma pomoću specifičnih tipova pripovijedanja ili tipičnih oblika filmskog zapisa, no to ipak nije moguće. Postoje i klasični i modernistički (i postmodernistički) vesterni, kriminalistički filmovi, komedije ili znanstveno-fantastični filmovi, a i ideje poput usmjerenja vesterna prema čestoj uporabi totala, a drame prema upo¬rabi krupnog plana odavno su napuštene kao nedostatne ili neutemeljene za ozbiljniju analizu filmskog žanra.
No, premda se i dokumentarni i eksperimentalni film u međunarodnoj (osobito u anglofonoj) filmologiji smatraju „žanrovima“, važno je napomenuti da se i međunarodna teorija žanra ipak uglavnom formira na fenomenima i primjerima iz igranog filma.
Translation - English 3. FILM GENRES
NUMEROUS film makers have achieved enviable artistic results by referring to the heritage of traditionally popular genres with a certain time distance, like for example the Coen brothers or Pedro Almodóvar, who in many of his best achievements combines the patterns of melodrama and comedy and (sometimes even yet another genre), while many artists (R. Altman, S. Peckinpah, W. Wenders and others) made their reputation precisely by re-examining the boundaries between the genres. After all, the programmatic masterpiece of modernist film itself, Godard's Breathless, is dedicated to the “poor” American film studio (the B-movie factory), and much of its plot can also be understood as a paraphrase (and a dedication) of what is not necessarily an American gangster movie. The very fact that in the middle of the plot of From Dusk Till Dawn, 1996, the genre changes, briefly led many critics to speculate about the huge potential of the film’s director Robert Rodriguez.
Furthermore, when it comes to films, especially feature films, the structures of the genre are often brought to the fore. Thus, the modern critics have often mentioned Brokeback Mountain, A. Lee, 2005) a sort of gay western (or at least a critical revision of the Western genre), despite the fact that the only argument for claiming that this film has anything in common with the western is an iconographic one - the heroes wear hats and jeans, ride horses, carry guns ... As one watches the film, however, it is difficult to spot any ethical questions crucial for a typical social community depicted in the world of westerns, Furthermore, there is no action that typifies the western environment either. Instead of cattle driving, pursuit, siege and similar activities, these cattle breeders (who, by the way, keep sheep not cows!) indulge themselves in certain activities that a classical western would never portray or deal with. The focus of the world depicted in Brokeback Mountain obviously lies on emotions, the things that heroes give to each other and expect from each other, or the gap between those values.
From this case (and it is not difficult to find similar ones), it might be concluded that, although conversations about, and analyses of genre structures (as well as placing the film within a certain genre) are omnipresent and extremely alive, they very often lead to confusion, instead of bringing order to, the offer of films. However, this by no means implies that we should give up thinking about the genres; it only means that this analysis requires some caution. After all, each phenomenon, whether related to the film or not, is often covered by media in an utterly inappropriate way. Thus, attempts are made to bring the works of hermetic poets closer to a wider audience by highlighting topics that are marginal in their work (erotic ones, for example) while the great painters are analyzed through vivid biographies (usually abounding in alcohol, illnesses and sex). It is therefore no wonder that films are analyzed by using the so-called film-maker's daily ideology, or through the prism of belonging to some genre with which it does not have much in common.
However, while trying to detect the real meaning of a category known as the film genre, the best way is to start by looking at the genres of feature films, since it is exactly within this film gender that the components of any one genre are best outlined, and that the structures of a genre – although dynamic, constantly emerging and disappearing in an interrelationship composed of the creator, the industry and the audience - are still the firmest and most visible. At first sight, it definitely looks appealing to define the genres of feature films by specific types of narration or film records, yet something like that is not possible. There are both classical and modern (as well as postmodern) westerns, detective films, comedies or science-fiction films, and ideas like reserving the frequent use of close-ups for the westerns and long-shots for dramas, have been long abandoned as insufficient or unfounded for any serious film genre analysis.
However, although both documentary and experimental films are considered “genres” in international (especially Anglophonic) filmology, it is important to observe that international genre theory is still mostly based on those phenomena and examples that derive from feature films.
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Master's degree - University of Zagreb, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Postgraduate Translation Studies
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Years of experience: 29. Registered at ProZ.com: Apr 2008. Became a member: May 2008.
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English to Croatian (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, verified) Croatian to English (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, verified) English to Croatian (Zagreb County Court) Croatian to English (Zagreb County Court)
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As a certified English-Croatian translator & Postgraduate Translation Specialist with more than 20 years experience in translation industry, I provide full range of high quality translation services, at competitive rates.
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- Postgraduate Translation Studies (University of Zagreb)
- English Language and Literature (University of Zagreb)
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