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Sample translations submitted: 1
English to Hindi: Plant Diseases
Source text - English
Black Sigatoka
Nutshell
Small reddish-brown flecks appear on the underside of young leaves. Later on, they become dark brown to black, elongated sunken spots with a gray center and a characteristic yellow halo. As the disease progresses, these spots coalesce and form long narrow brown streaks along the veins. Leaf margins can become water-soaked and black.
Prevention
Use resistant varieties (note that this can negatively impact taste). Leave sufficient space between plants to ensure good ventilation. Chose areas with good drainage and avoid hard soils such as heavy clay soils. Do not use overhead irrigation. Remove plant debris. Plant in locations exposed to the morning sun or prevailing winds to keep the leaves as dry as possible. Collect infected leaves and burn them. Ensure a good fertilization of the fields. Apply urea to the soil as fertilizer to hinder the growth of the fungus. Complement your fertilization with silicon, copper, calcium, boron and zinc to reduce the severity of the disease.
Symptoms
In the initial stage of the disease, small reddish-brown flecks (1mm) appear on the underside of the 3rd or 4th open leaf. Later on, these flecks enlarge and gradually become dark brown to black, elliptical or elongated sunken spots (4 to 12 mm) with sometimes a gray center and a characteristic yellow halo. The growth occurs parallel to the veins and is by then visible on both leaf surfaces. As the disease progresses, the spots coalesce and form long narrow brown streaks surrounded by large yellow areas, always following the tracing of the veins. Leaf margins might become water-soaked and black. In susceptible varieties or in cases of heavy infections, large areas of the leaf surface can become necrotic and die, reducing fruit yield or causing uneven ripening of fruit bunches.
Trigger
Black Sigatoka is a fungal disease of banana caused by the organism Mycosphaerella fijiensis. It is sometimes referred to as black leaf streak because of the characteristic symptoms. It survives in dead or living plant tissues, and produces spores that are be spread by wind or rain splashes. Another way of disease transmission is via the movement of infected living plant material, plant trash or contaminated fruits. Black Sigatoka is more frequent in environments with high humidity and elevated temperatures. The optimal growth temperature for the fungus is around 27°C and young leaves are the most susceptible. It is one of the most severe banana diseases worldwide.
Chemical Control
Always consider an integrated approach with preventive measures together with biological treatments if available. Fungicides containing mancozeb or chlorothalonil can be applied as foliar spray when the disease is not widespread. Rotations of systemic fungicides such as propiconazole, fenbuconazole or azoxystrobin also work fine. The rotation is important to prevent the fungus from building up resistance.
Biological Control
Bio-fungicides based on Trichoderma atroviride have the potential to control the disease and are being tested for possible field applications. Bordeaux spray applied on pruning sites can hinder the propagation of the disease on these plant parts.
2.
Yellow Sigatoka
Nutshell
Light green specks appear on the upper side of the leaf. Lesions enlarge and form narrow, brown spots and later rusty red streaks. Red streaks with yellow, water-soaked margins. Large brown to black necrotic areas appear along the leaf margin.
Prevention
Use resistant varieties (note that this can negatively impact taste). Leave sufficient space between plants to ensure good ventilation. Avoid high soil moisture through good drainage. Clear fields and surroundings of weeds. Ensure a balanced nutrition of the trees. Apply urea as nitrogen source to compromise fungal growth on the soil. Cut off infected leaves, then burn them outside of the plantation or bury them. Use fertilizers high in potassium to minimize the infestation.
Symptoms
The earliest symptoms can be found on the 3rd and 4th open leaf. Tiny, light yellow specks (1-2mm long) appear on the upper leaf blade, parallel to the secondary veins. These specks later develop into narrow, brown or dark green spots with a spindle shape. These lesions expand further parallel to the veins and form oblong rusty red streaks with water-soaked centers and yellow halos (4 to 12 mm in length). The centers of the streaks gradually turn gray brown to brown, a sign of necrosis. Along the leaf margins, they coalesce to form large, black or brown necrotic lesions surrounded by patches of yellow areas. The cracking of the leaves gives them a ragged appearance.
Trigger
Yellow Sigatoka is caused by the fungus Mycosphaerrela musicola and occurs throughout the world. It is one of the most destructive diseases of banana. It is more frequent at higher altitudes and cooler temperatures, or during rainy seasons in subtropical growing regions with warm environments and high relative humidity. The fungus survives in dead or living plant tissues, and produces spores that are spread by wind or rain splashes. The optimal growth temperature for the fungus is around 27°C and young leaves are the most susceptible. The disease reduces plant productivity, which in turn affects the size of the bunch and shortens the ripening time of the fruit.
Chemical Control
Always consider an integrated approach with preventive measures together with biological treatments if available. Fungicides containing mancozeb, calixin or chlorothalonil can be applied as foliar sprays when disease is not widespread. Rotations of systemic fungicides such as propiconazole, fenbuconazole or azoxystrobin also work fine. The rotation is important to prevent the build up of resistance in the fungus.
Biological Control
Biological control with bio-fungicides based on Trichoderma atroviride have the potential to hinder the disease and are being tested for possible field applications. Bordeaux spray applied on pruning sites can hinder the propagation of the disease on these plan parts
3.
Cigar End Rot
Nutshell
A dry, gray to black rot develops at the fruit tips. The affected areas are covered by grayish fungal growth that looks like the ashes at the burnt end of a cigar. In storage or during transport the disease may progress to involve the whole fruit. The fruits have a abnormal shape, mold is apparent on their surface and lesions are clearly visible on the skin.
Prevention
Use tolerant varieties if available. Maintain 3-4 plants per stool. Avoid damage to plant tissues during field work. Use a plastic sleeve to protect banana fruits from rainfall. Prune banana leaves to reduce humidity in the canopy. Remove all floral remains after bunch formation. Remove all dying or dead leaves regularly, especially during the rainy season. Burn infected plant parts or bury them in fields where no banana is cultivated. Store in cool (prompt cooling at 14°C), dry places to reduce the incidence of the disease. Thoroughly clean tools and storage facilities to reduce the incidence of the disease during handling and storage.
Symptoms
The disease is characterized by the development of a dry, gray to black rot at the tip of the fruits. The fungal growth actually starts at the flowering stage and compromises the ripening process of the fruits. The affected areas are covered by grayish fungal growth that looks like the ashes at the burnt end of a cigar, thereby the common name. In storage or during transport the disease may progress to involve the whole fruit, resulting in a "mummification" process. The fruits have a abnormal shape, mold is apparent on their surface and lesions are clearly visible on the skin.
Trigger
Cigar end rot is a disease of banana caused mainly by the fungus Trachysphaera fructigena and sometimes another fungus (Verticillium theobromae). It is transported via wind or rain splashes to healthy tissues. The fungus attacks bananas in the flowering stage during the rainy season. It infects the banana through the flower. From there, it later spreads to the tip of the fruit and causes a dry rot that is similar to the ash of a cigar, thereby the common name. The infection is common in the early days after the emergence of the fruit and in warm moist conditions, especially in high altitude areas and in plantations in shade areas.
Chemical Control
Always consider an integrated approach with preventive measures together with biological treatments if available. Usually the disease is of minor significance and it seldom requires chemical control. Affected bunches can be sprayed with mancozeb, triophanate methyl or metalaxyl once and be covered with plastic sleeves afterwards.
Biological Control
Sprays based on baking soda can be used to control the fungus. To make this spray, dissolve 100 g of baking soda with 50 g of soap in 2 liters of water. Spray this mixture on infected branches and on nearby branches to prevent infection. This increases the pH levels of the surface of the fingers and inhibits the growth of the fungus. Copper fungicide sprays might be effective, too.
4.
Anthracnose of Banana
Nutshell
Dark-brown to black, sunken spots appear on the peel of infected fruits. On yellowing fruits, these lesions can coalesce to become sizable black sunken patches. Orange to salmon pink colored fungal growth appear in their center. Affected fruits can ripen prematurely, with the pulp becoming progressively rotted.
Prevention
Avoid damage to the banana tissue during harvest, packaging and storage. Use plastic sleeves after bunch emergence to protect them from contamination. Clean processing stations and storage facilities to prevent post-harvest contamination. Wash fruits with water to rid the skin from fungal spores. Remove decaying leaves and remaining floral parts.
Symptoms
The fungus causes dark-brown to black, sunken spots on the peel of infected fruits. Initial symptoms are visible on green fruits, and are characterized by dark-brown to black lenticular, sunken lesions with pale margins on the peel. On yellowing fruits, these lesions are of variable sizes and can coalesce to become sizable black sunken patches. Orange to salmon pink colored fungal growth appear in their center. The symptoms can also start to appear on the tip of the fruit and result from a former floral infection. Affected fruits can ripen prematurely, with the pulp becoming progressively affected by rot. The first symptoms may also appear long after harvest, during transportation or storage.
Trigger
Anthracnose is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum musae, that survives in dead or decaying leaves and also on fruits. Its spores can be spread by wind, water and insects as well as by birds and rats feeding on bananas. They enter the fruit through small wounds in the peel and later germinate and initiate the expression of symptoms. Favorable environmental conditions for an infection are elevated temperatures, high humidity and frequent rainfalls. The symptoms may develop on ripening fruits on tree bunches or post-harvest during storage. It is the main disease affecting the quality of banana fruits during transportation and storage.
Chemical Control
During cultivation, banana bunches can be sprayed with indofil M 45 (0.25 %) or bavistin (0.05 %) and later covered to avoid any contamination. Harvested fruits can be dipped or sprayed with fungicides containing benzimidazole. Coating of the fruits with the food-grade chemical butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) might have the potential to enhance the activity of these fungicides.
Biological Control
Treatments of fruits at harvest with biofungicides based on 10% Arabic gum together with 1.0% chitosan (a derivative of chitin) has been shown to partly control the disease during storage. A variety of plant-based mixtures have been used with some success to avoid the growth of the pathogen, including citric extracts, Zingiber officinale rhizome extracts as well as leaf extracts of Acacia albida, Polyalthia longifolia and Clerodendrum inerme. These promising data still need to be confirmed in field experiments. Immersion of green fruits in hot water at 55°C for 2 minutes also reduces the incidence.
5.
Panama Disease
Nutshell
Yellow and wilted old leaves and the split stem close to ground level. Leaves turn brown and eventually collapse at the petiole, forming a “skirt” around the stem. Yellowish to reddish streaks are visible on the stems. Reddish to dark-brown discoloration of the internal tissues of stems. Eventually, all parts above and below the ground rot and die.
Prevention
Use only healthy planting material from certified sources. Plant resistant varieties if available. Ensure good drainage. Monitor plants every second week. Use a herbicide to kill diseased plants in place. Uproot severely affected plants and burn them separately on the spot. Beware of inadvertently transporting soil from infected areas to clean areas. Disinfect tools, equipment and farm machinery using sodium hypochlorite bleach. Do not plant banana in highly infected soils for the next 3-4 years. Rotate with sugarcane, rice or sunflower to reduce the incidence. Intercrop with Chinese leeks (Allium tuberosum). Foster the presence of microorganism that suppress the growth of the fungus.
Symptoms
Symptoms can vary slightly depending on the banana variety, the strength of the pathogen and the environmental conditions. The disease affects older leaves first and moves gradually upwards to the younger ones. The disease is characterized by yellow and wilted leaves and petioles and the splitting of the base of the stem. Diseased leaves turn brown, dry and eventually collapse at the petiole, forming a “skirt” around the stem. Yellowish to reddish streaks are visible on the stems, becoming more intense at the base. Cross sections show a reddish to dark-brown discoloration of the internal tissues, an indication of fungal growth and rotting of tissue. Eventually, all parts above and below ground rot and die.
Trigger
Panama disease (also called Fusarium wilt) is caused by a subspecies of the fungus Fusarium Oxyporum, that can survive in soils for decades. It enters the plant through the tiny root hairs, a process that is favored in light, poorly drained soils. It is be spread over short distances by surface water, vehicles, tools and footwear. Infected planting material, in turn, is the most common way the disease is spread over long distances. Elevated temperatures are an important component in the progression of the disease. The chlorosis of leaves and the lack of plant vigor occurs due to the decay of the transport tissues in the stem which leads to impaired water and nutrient transport. If all conditions are met, Fusarium wilt can be a very destructive disease in banana.
Chemical Control
Always consider an integrated approach with preventive measures together with biological treatments if available. Contrarily to other fungal diseases in banana fusarium wilt, once detected, cannot be controlled with fungicides. Dipping plantlets in carbendazim (10g/10 litres of water) followed by drenching of the soil every second month starting 6 months after planting is recommended.
Biological Control
The application of biocontrol agents such as the fungus Trichoderma viride or the bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens in the soil are effective methods to decrease the incidence and severity of the disease.
6.
Banana Streak Virus
Nutshell
Formation of even or broken yellow streaks that run from the leaf midrib to the margin. Streaks later turn brown or black and can be interrupted by yellow blotches or eye-shaped patterns. Necrosis starts to appear on the leaf margin and moves towards midrib and petiole. Plant growth is usually stunted and the bunches are distorted and reduced in size.
Prevention
Use virus-free planting material from certified sources. Infected plants should be cut down and destroyed.
Symptoms
The symptoms of the disease can vary widely, depending on the type and amount of virus involved, the plant variety and the environmental conditions. The most common symptom is the formation of even or broken yellow streaks that run from the leaf midrib to the margin. These streaks later turn brown or black and can be interrupted by yellow blotches or eye-shaped patterns. Necrosis starts to appear on the leaf, starting from the margin, and sometimes affecting midrib and petiole. Occasionally, the internal tissues of the stem are also affected by decay. The latter symptom is particularly visible under low temperature and short-day conditions. Not all leaves are affected but plant growth is usually stunted, while the size of the bunches and fruits is reduced.
Trigger
The disease is caused by a complex of viruses. The nature of the symptoms is determined by the concentration of viral particles in plants. Temperatures, and weather patters in general, also influence the outcome of an infection. The virus is spread from tree to tree or between fields through several species of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). Another means of long distance dissemination is the use of infected planting material or seeds. It is not soil-borne and unlikely to be transmitted via mechanical injuries to plants through during field work. It is a worldwide problem that affect banana and related species and that can adversely affect plant growth, fruit yield and quality. The virus is unlikely to be spread on cutting tools or by mechanical means.
Chemical Control
Always consider an integrated approach with preventive measures together with biological treatments if available. There is no chemical treatment of viral diseases. The waxy protective coating of mealybugs makes them difficult to kill. T reatments with insecticides such as deltamethrin, or thiamethoxam can be used to control mealybug populations.
Biological Control
Bio-control agents such as parasitoid wasps, lacewings or hover flies and lady birds can be used to control populations of mealybugs. Light mineral oils or neem extracts sprayed on leaves are also effective when populations are small.
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