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Sample translations submitted: 3
German to English: Mythical Depictions of Contemporary Greece in European Narrative Literature General field: Art/Literary Detailed field: Poetry & Literature
Source text - German Mythische Präsentationen des heutigen Griechenlands in der europäischen Erzählliteratur
Das Referat wird einen besonderen Aspekt meiner umfangreicheren Arbeit über "Das Land der Griechen. Studien zur Griechenland- rezeption in der modernen europäischen Erzählliteratur" (erschienen als Band 2 der "Saarbrücker Beiträge zur vergleichenden Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaft" Würzburg [Verlag Königshausen und Neumann] 1995) vorstellen. Der antike Mythos spielt in den untersuchten Texten insofern eine Rolle, als auch die Darstellung des modernen, des aktuellen Griechenlands viele Autoren nicht davon abhält, auf archaische Bilder, antike Legenden oder punktuelle mythologische Referenzen zurückzugreifen. Man kann also gleich ein Ergebnis der folgenden Uberlegungen vorwegnehmen: Daß nämlich auch die realistischsten und aktuellsten Erfahrungen des griechischen Raums und der griechischen Landschaft nicht selten von traditionellen Vorstellungen, vom kulturellen Wissen des Dichters über das antike Griechenland begleitet werden.
Unter dem Begriff 'Raum' verstehe ich in diesem Zusammenhang zweierlei:
1. Die Beschaffenheit Griechenlands als eines sakralen Raumes, der von den Erzählern unmittelbar mit charakteristischen Mythen assoziiert wird: z. B. Griecheniand ist Circe, d. h. Griechenland ist weiblich, Griechenland ist verführerisch, gefährlich usw. Ich komme gleich darauf zurück.
Es kann sich dabei auch um geographisch spezifische Räume handeln, die dann aber oft paradigmatischen Charakter haben: also etwa mythologische Evokationen zur Charakterisierung des Insel- oder des Stadterlebnisses.
2. Unter dem Terminus 'Raum' untersuche ich weiterhin mythologische Konstruktionen und Bilder, die weniger Landschaften beschreiben als vielmehr die Bewegung des Helden in Zeit und Raum symbolisieren, z. B. die Reise als Odyssée. Oft wird durch solche Bilder der Aufenthalt in Griechenland als eine Art 'Initiation' für den Protagonisten gekennzeichnet.
Damit fasse ich den Mythos-Begriff nicht nur rein stofflich. Auch die Struktur trägt mythologische Spuren:
Fur die Darstellung meines Vortrags werde ich mich nur auf Autoren beziehen, bei denen der 'Mythos' eine erkennbare hermeneutische oder strukturelle Funktion hat. Aus Zeitgründen werde ich die Autoren und ihre Werke nicht im einzelnen vorstellen können, möchte sie aber immerhin kurz einordnen:
Mythologische Elemente finden wir in dem Roman The Magus von John Fowles (1965). Es ist die Geschichte eines Englischlehrers, der nach Griechenland kommt, um seine Vergangenheit zu bewältigen und eine neue - existenzielle - Erfahrung zu machen. In seiner Begegnung mit den Griechen, insbesondere mit Conchis, der als Mentor und Magier zugleich agiert, ist er vor allem auch psychischen Einflüssen ausgesetzt - Einflüsse, die ihn zu einer Art Gratwanderung zwischen Fiktion und Wirklichkeit führen.
Weiterhin interessiert mich hier der französische Schriftsteller Jean Joubert, der in seinem Lézard Grec (1984) ("Die griechische Eidechse") ein griechisches Dichterparadies sucht und sich in seinem Roman mit der Landschaft und den Menschen auseinandersetzt. Ein interessanter Fall ist auch Jacques Lacarrière mit seinem L'étè Grec (1975) und Chemins d'écriture (1990), wo er in zahlreichen Passagen seine langjährige Griechenlanderfahrung unter anderem auch mit Hilfe mythologischer Motive beschreibt.
Nicht verzichten kann ich in diesem Zusammenhang auf Erasmus Schöfer, der in Tod in Athen (1986) eine Art Anti-Bild, ein ganz unromantisches Bild von Griechenland gegeben hat.
Allen Autoren ist gemeinsam, daß sie den antiken Mythos bildhaft auf der Beschreibungsebene einsetzen, um Landschaft. und Raum, um bestimmte Erlebnisse und Handlungen zu charakterisieren. Man kann dieses Verfahren generell als Poetisierung bezeichnen, wenn man darunter - ich denke an Schöfers Roman - auch eine Poetisierung des Häßlichen versteht.
Denn es gilt gleich festzustellen, daß in den genannten Texten die Klischees des traditionellen Griechenlandbildes nicht einfach ungebrochen fortgesetzt werden. Vielfach haben wir es mit sehr realistischen, auch modernen Entwicklungen Griechenlands einschließenden Beschreibungen zu tun (Stichwort: Tourismus und Industrialisierung).
Manche Autoren suchen zwar das Land der Griechen noch mit der Seele, was sie aber dann finden, sind neben dem antiken Erbe z. B. auch Betonbauten.
Ich möchte nun den ersten erwähnten Raumaspekt - Griechenland als globaler oder spezifischer mythischer Raum exemplarisch aufgreifen. John Fowles benutzt den Mythos, um der Handlung, dem Titel gemäß, einen Symbolcharakter zu verleihen. So, wenn er seinen Helden mit Odysseus und Griechenland mit Circe assoziiert.
Die Landschaft Griechenlands wird bei Fowles stark mythopoetisch gezeichnet. Unter den verschiedenen Landschaftsräumen haben vor allem die Inseln etwas Magisches. Schon in seinem Vorwort verwendet Fowles mythologische Anspielungen: "The Greece of the islands is Circe still; no place for the artist-voyager to linger long, if he cares for his soul" [Fowles: 9]. Circe evoziert für den Dichter Schönheit und herrlichen Gesang, gleichzeitig verkörpert sie Gefahr, Verführungskunst, Tod. Die Gefahr, auf die Fowles seinen Leser im Vorwort aufmerksam machen will, hinterläßt, selbst wenn sie überwunden wird, ihre Zeichen: "I had escaped Circe, but the withdrawal symptoms were severe" [ibid.]. Der Dichter identifiziert sich in diesem Vorwort mit Odysseus, jenem Odysseus, dem es nur mit äußerster Mühe gelang, sich aus den Fängen der verführerischen Ciree zu befreien und die Insel zu verlassen.
Sowohl die (fiktive) griechische Insel Phraxos, auf der die Handlung des 'Magus' hauptsächlich spielt, als auch Griechenland als Ganzes, werden durch mythologische Gestalten verkörpert: "But with the love came a contradictory, almost irritating, feeling of impotence and inferiority, as if Greece were a woman so sensually provocative that I must fall physically and desperately in love with her, and at the same time so calmly aristocratic that I should never be able to approach her" [ibid.: 49]. Ein Gefühl der Machtlosigkeit und der Unterlegenheit bemächtigt sich des Helden angesichts eines Griechenlands, daß ihm die Sinne raubt, ihn verzaubert, wie dies vergleichsweise eine schöne verführerische Frau tun kann, oder eben wie die gefährliche Circe: "this Circe-like quality of Greece; the quality that makes it unique" ibid.).
Der ganze Roman funktioniert im Übrigen wie ein Initiationsritual. Grundlage dafür sind die Eleusinischen Mysterien. Conchis verhält sich wie eine göttliche Instanz, die den Helden durch Rollenzuweisung manipuliert, ihn in geheimnisvolle, undurchschaubare Situationen führt. Damit verbunden sind theaterspezifische und vor allem auch sexuelle Erlebnisse.
Man kann bei Fowles gleichzeitig beobachten, daß die mythische Stimmung mitunter dadurch zurückgenommen wird, daß über den Mythos als solchen reflektiert wird. Der Held entzieht sich punktuell dem quasi-religiösen Bann:
"The rest was sublimely peaceful, as potential as a clean canvas, a site for myths" [ebd.: 63]: Griechenland wird als das Reich der Mythen ausdrücklich thematisiert. So beschreibt der Erzähler einen ambivalenten Zustand zwischen Wirklichkeit und Fiktion, bzw. Wirklichkeit und Mythos, wenn es heißt:
“Once more I am a man in a myth, incapable of understanding it, but somehow aware that understanding it meant it must continue, however sinister its peripateia” [Ibid .: 381].
Ich möchte nun anhand einiger weiterer Beispiele noch etwas genauer auf das Raum-Erlebnis eingehen. Grundsätzlich kann man zwischen euphorischen und dysphorischen Raum-Vorstellungen unterscheiden, wobei aber viele Mythen gerade dadurch faszinierend sind, daß sie zugleich positive und negative Assoziationen erwecken können (z. B. Circe, und wie wir gleich noch sehen werden - auch das Labyrinth). In der Regel thematisieren Griechenlandreisende vor allem die exotische, die mediterrane Landschaft, und bedienen sich entsprechender mythologischer Bilder.
Der dysphorische Raum, den es entgegen touristischer Klischee-Vorstellungen in Griechenland auch gibt, wird von den Autoren fast ganz ausgeklammert.
Eine interessante Ausnahme ist hier der Roman Schöfers, Tod in Athen. Der Titel, den man intertextuell verstehen kann - als Anspielung auf Thomas Manns Tod in Venedig und auf Wolfgang Koeppens Tod in Rom - konfrontiert uns unmittelbar mit der von Athen, d. h. von einem urbanen Raum ausgehenden Gefahr. Dazu lesen wir in einer Kritik über den Roman Schöfers:
"Tod in Athen': Schöfer riskiert mit diesem Titel große Assoziationen unweigerlich denkt man an Thomas Manns Tod in Venedig'. Doch Athen steht bei Schöfer nicht als atmosphärische Chiffre, wird nicht zum Symbol für Untergangssehnsucht und todesbereite Selbstentgrenzung. Athen, die Stadt explosiver sozialer Gegensätze, die Stadt des Massenelends und kapitalgieriger Ausbeutung, wird ihm der Ort, an dem seine Widerstandswut wiedererwacht, sein tödlicher Selbsthaß zu schmelzen beginnt" [Jörder, 1986: 12].
Schöfer will sich einerseits von dem idealistischen, romantisierten Griechenland-Bild abgrenzen, andererseits benutzt er antik-griechische Motive, um die Stadt Athen zu beschreiben. So bleibt er im Rahmen der gängigen kulturellen Überlieferung. Die Betonstadt Athen läßt den Autor an ein Labyrinth und an den Minotaurus denken. Das Labyrinth als topographisches Muster und als Metapher für Unfreiheit ist Ausdruck des Umweltbewußtseins, aber auch des politischen Engagements des Erzählers, der die Großstadt als
den Schauplatz kapitalistischer Ausbeutung und reaktionärer Tendenzen betrachtet.
Athen ist ein "vergiftetes Betonlabyrinth" [Schöfer: 421]; den Helden drängen sich angesichts dieser Stadt furchterregende, geradezu archaische Bilder auf: "Er dementiert den Gedanken, der rostige Frachter, der gestrandet auf den Felsen vor den Zementfabriken hängt, sei ein vom Minotaurus angelocktes Opfer. Das ist anders zu sehn, gleichgültiger, gegenwärtiger" [ibid.: 90].
Ich kann auf das 'Labyrinth' als Thema in der Literatur nicht eingehen und verweise in diesem Zusammenhang auf das Buch von Manfred Schmeling Der labyrinthische Diskurs. Vom Mythos zum Erzählmodell, wo auch die strukturellen und narratologischen Konsequenzen behandelt werden.
Die Erfahrung der chaotischen Stadt, die der romantischen Griechenlanderfahrung so entgegengesetzt ist, entspricht der Erfahrung von urbaner Modernität schlechthin. Damit verliert die Griechenlandbeschreibung zwangsläufig etwas von ihrer griechischen Spezifik. In seinem Beitrag mit dem Titel Die Bewußtseinskrise der Moderne und die Erfahrung der Stadt als Labyrinth setzt sich Hartwig Isernhagen mit diesem zeittypischen Motiv der chaotischen Großstadt auseinander: "Die Metropole ist das monströse Haupt, das wie eine Krebsgeschwulst auf dem Körper des Landes sitzt, welches von ihr aus regiert wird. Das Verhältnis zwischen Stadt und Land ist parasitär und oppositionell zugleich: In der Stadt konzentrieren sich Luxus und Korruption, Macht und Ausbeutung, kulturelle Leistung und von ihr ununterscheidbare Charlatanerie; das umliegende Land wird ausgezehrt, aber es bietet zugleich Raum für kleine Bereiche der Ordnung, die der ungeordneten Dynamik des städtischen Lebens nicht ausgeliefert sind. Die Stadt ist ein Chaos der Unregierbarkeit und Vernichtung, das Land bedrohter Zufluchtsort, an dem in aller Stille und ganz unauffällig vielleicht noch etwas Sinnvolles geschaffen werden kann" (Isernhagen, 1983: 81]. Vergleichbare Schreckensbilder liefert Schöfer dem Leser in seinem Roman: "Verschwommen die Berge im Sommerdunst über Attika, die Hochhäuser und Hügel von Piräus und Athen schemenhaft auszumachen unter der Smoghaube, die liegt in dem breiten Talkessel gefangen, verspricht atemberaubende Hitze. Nur zwei weiße Rauchwolken bewegungslos durch die gelbliche Schicht hoch hinauf in den milchblauen Him-
mel. Mehr zu ahnen als sichtbar hinter diesem Schleier die Akropolis" [Schöfer: 84 f.).
Schöfers Bilderwelt trägt den modernen, zivilisatorischen Widersprüchen Rechnung: Palmen vs. Industrie, Coca-Cola in griechischen Lettern, die Akropolis als kulturelle Oase im Smog. Mit der Natur wird auch die überlieferte Kultur bedroht.
Die Akropolis - das Symbol hellenischer Tradition wird umfunktioniert
zum Symbol kapitalistischer Widersprüche.
"Weiter hinten vor dem blassen Himmel ein steiler, weißgrauer Felsab-
bruch. Auf dem Berg die Tempelruine, flach, unscheinbarer, als er sie im Lufthansa-Büro auf dem Plakat gesehn hatte.
Wenn du deinen Blick mal aus dem Staub hebst, Manfred, siehst du die Akropolis" [ibid.:157]. Oder:
"Der in den verrotteten Hinterhof der Plaka verschlagene Baum, das gelbgrüne dämmrige Zwielicht unter seinen Zweigen, entfernte die von Hitze und Lärm flirrende Stadtsteppe Athen. Wenn hier was lebte, dann schlafend. Schlafende Nähe auch von dreitausend Jahren Geschichte, Menschengeschichte, Kunstgeschichte, der Giebel des Parthenon ausgeschnitten über dem fleckigen Ziegeldach" [ibid.: 163].
Tourismus und Kultur erscheinen hier eher als Gegensätze:
"Da hängt die Musik wie die gedruckten Blusen aus Kreta und Mykonos, da hängen Apoll und Athene und Herakles der Befreier wie diese Menschen, die sich ihre Zeit und ihr Leben vertreiben lassen und für den Raub noch bezahlen. Dort oben der Parthenon im künstlichen Licht, unübersehbar, vergeistigter Stein, humanisierter Marmor. Hier unten alles pseudo und neblig" [ebd.: 254].
Zum Vergleich noch einmal zu Fowles: Obwohl John Fowles die urbane Welt realistisch und mit kritischen Augen sieht, beschreibt er sie stärker als Schöfer unter poetischen Vorzeichen. Sein Athenbild entspricht dabei durchaus den negativen Vorstellungen, die man von der Großstadt in der heißen Mittagssonne südlicher Gefilde haben kann.
Fowles evoziert fast eine Atmosphäre des 'ennui' und der Indifferenz, die momentan an existentialistische Stadtbeschreibungen, zum Beispiel an das Oran von Albert Camus erinnern:
"Athens was dust, ochre and drab. Even the palm trees looked exhausted. All the humanity in human beings hat retreated behind dark skins and even darker glasses, and by two in the afternoon the streets were empty, abandoned to indolence and heat" [Fowles: 245). Nur etwa zehn Kilometer entfernt von Athen liegt Piräus. Die Hafenstadt Piräus verkörpert aus der Sicht von Fowles das geschäftige, das moderne Griechenland. Typisch ist die Mischung aus
kosmopolitischer Atmosphäre ("multilingual"), Handel und Industrie - das Ganze durchweht von einem Hauch von Dekadenz. Aus dieser realistischen Perspektive erscheint Fowles Mythologie im Nachhinein viel stärker als Fiktion:
"Bars, multilingual neon signs, photos of strippers and belly-dancers, sailors in lounging groups, glimpses through bead curtains of Lautrec-like interiors, women in lines along the padded benches. The streets were thronged with pimps and tarts, barrow-boys selling pistachios and sunflower-pips, chestnut-sellers, pasty-sellers, lottery-ticket hawkers. Doorwomen invited us in, men slid up with wallets of watches, packets of Lucky Strike and Camel, shoddy souvenirs. And every ten yards someone whistled at Alison" [ibid. 250].
Werfen wir nun einen Blick auf die Bewegung des Helden im Raum und die damit verbundenen mythologischen Aspekte. (2. Punkt) Die Griechenlanderfahrung der Autoren wird von den Autoren selbst als eine wesentliche existenzielle Phase ihres Lebens betrachtet. Zumindest teilweise waren persönliche Enttäuschungen und Defizite im eigenen Land mit dafür verantwortlich, daß sich die verschiedenen Schriftsteller auf eine Art Odyssée, eine Suche nach neuen äußeren und inneren Erfahrungen begeben haben.
Die Griechenlandreise wird bei Jacques Lacarrière sowie bei Fowles und Joubert durch das archetypische Modell der Odyssee zu einer Form von Initiation. Lacarrière beschreibt in seinem Buch Chemins d'écriture seine Griechenlandreise mit Hilfe des typischen mythologischen Modells: Odysseus. Die Idee der Initiation, d. h. der äußeren und inneren Prüfung, die das Individuum auf dem Weg zum Ziel über sich ergehen lassen muß, und die Odyssée als Reise-Motiv verschmelzen in Lacarrières Vorstellungswelt zu einem großen synkretischen Bild. Der Autor evoziert an einer Stelle die Gefahr, die von der Schönheit der griechischen Inseln ausgeht. Es ist hier die Versuchung, die den Dichter daran hindern könnte, sich auf sein Werk zu konzentrieren:
"A Patmos, bien que je n'y aie pas rencontré Calypso, j'ai compris expérimentalement les tentations d'Ulysse. En ces îles blanches essaimées sur la mer comme des jeux, des patiences délaissées par un enfant-dieux, tout conspire à vous vider de toute résolution. [...] Eh oui, je l'ignorais alors et c'est ainsi que je l'appris: les mythes grecs sont vrais, en tout cas ceux que rapporte l'Odyssée. Pour pouvoir résister au chant des sirènes, il faut comme Ulysse avoir un mât solide et droit, s'y amarrer solidement si l'on veut écouter sans risque le chant fatal. Mon mât, bien sûr, ce fût le tilleul. Grâce à lui, je suis revenu initié des îles grecques" [Lacarrière, 1991: 125 f.].
Lacarrière drückt hier auf subtile Weise aus, wie der initiatorische Prozeß - oder die Odyssée - in fremder Umgebung abläuft: auch als Versuchung nămlich, der es zu widerstehen gilt. Hier stehen sich das Fremde (GriechenIand) und das Eigene (Frankreich) gleichsam als Antipoden gegenüber: Die Gefahr, die von den Sirenen ausgeht, das ist für den Fremden in Griechenland die Gefahr der Untätigkeit, des Epikureertums.
Lacarrière spricht an einer Stelle konkret von dieser Gefahr: Über der reinen Sinnenfreude das Schreiben zu vergessen. Der Mast des Odysseus, das Symbol der Standfestigkeit, wird in der Vorstellung des Griechenlandreisenden zum 'tilleul', d. h. zur Linde. Und die Linde ist nunmehr das Symbol des Eigenen, der heimatlichen Natur, der Verwurzelung in einem 'fernen' Zuhause [vgl. ibd.].
Fowles erwähnt auch eine Reihe weitere Mythologeme, die die Wege, ja in einem abstrakteren Sinne die Weghaftigkeit und die Stationen symbolisieren, die dem Helden bevorstehen.
Odysseus, Theseus oder Oedipus, mit denen der Erzähler seinen Protagonisten mitunter identifiziert, versinnbildlichen quasi die komplizierte Bewegung des Helden im Raum, die gleichsam parallel mit dem Erkenntnisprozeß verläuft: "and as I walked there came the strangest feeling, compounded of the early hour, the absolute solitude, and what had happened, of having entered a myth; a knowledge of what it was like physically, moment by moment, to have been young and ancient, a Ulysses on his way to meet Circe, a Theseus on his joumey to Crete, an Oedipus still searching for his destiny" (Fowles: 157].
Auch Martin in Jean Jouberts Roman Le lézard grec versteht seinen Griechenlandaufenthalt momentan als eine gefährliche Odyssée: "Dans ce fond de baie, vers lequel on aurait pu douter qu'il y eût d'autre accès que la mer, il sentait qu'ils avaient tous trois pris la fuite, au dernier instant, comme Ulysse et ses compagnons devant la colère de Cyclope aveuglé..." [Joubert: 1871.
Ich darf eine kurze Bilanz ziehen:
Mein spezielles Interesse galt der literarischen Gestaltung von Griechenlanderfahrungen durch moderne Autoren. Wir konnten auf internationaler Basis beobachten, wie sehr diese Erfahrungen, die in den 60er bis 80er Jahren entstanden sind, mit dem mythologischen Wissen der Erzähler verschmelzen.
Daraus entsteht eine innere Spannung, die sich auch in der Rezeption niederschlägt. Einerseits liefern die Autoren eine Alternative zum traditionellen Griechenlandbild, indem sie es historisch aktualisieren, ja wie im Fall Schöfers - weitgehend entidealisieren: sie entziehen es gleichsam dem Mythos.
Auf der anderen Seite remythisieren sie reale Erfahrungen wieder mit Hilfe von Bildern und Motiven, die der antiken Tradition entstammen. Vielleicht ist es gerade dieser ästhetisch und ethisch produktive Widerspruch, der die Lektüre solcher modernen Griechenlandromane reizvoll macht.
Literaturverzeichnis
Fowles, John: The Magus, London (Picador) 1977
Jörder, Gerhard: Verlorene Träume, neugewonnene Wut. In: Badische Zeitung vom 24.09.86
Joubert, Jean: Le lézard grec, Paris (Grasset) 1984
Isernhagen, Hartwig: Die Bewußstseinskrise der Moderne und die Erfahrung der Stadt als Labyrinth. In: Die Stadt in der Literatur, hrsg. von E. Schraut. Göttingen (Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht) 1983
Lacarriére, Jacques: Chemins d'écriture, Paris (Plon) 1991
Schmeling, Manfred: Der labyrinthische Diskurs. Vom Mythos zum Erzählmodell. Frankfurt (Athenäum) 1987
Schöfer, Erasmus: Tod in Aihen, Dortmund (Weltkreis) 1986
Translation - English Mythical Depictions of Contemporary Greece in European Narrative Literature
This paper will present a particular aspect of my extensive work on “The Land of the Greeks: Studies on the Reception of Greece in Modern European Narrative Literature" (published as Volume 2 of the “Saarbrücken Contributions to Comparative Literature and Cultural Studies" Würzburg [Verlag Königshausen und Neumann] 1995). Ancient myth plays a significant role in the texts examined, such that the depiction of modern, contemporary Greece does not stop many authors from resorting to archaic images, ancient legends or particular mythological reference points. It is thus possible to state at the outset what the conclusion of the following reflections will be: that it is not uncommon for the most realistic and contemporary experiences of the Greek space and the Greek landscape to be accompanied by traditional ideas, by the writer's cultural knowledge of ancient Greece.
The term 'space' in this context means two things:
1. The constitution of Greece as a sacred space, which storytellers associate with typical myths: for example, Greece is Circe, therefore Greece is female, Greece is seductive, dangerous, etc. I will return to this theme presently.
These can also be geographically defined spaces that often have a paradigmatic character, such as evocations of mythology that depict the experience of the island or the city.
2. Under the term 'space' I furthermore explore mythological constructions and images that do not so much describe landscapes as symbolise the movement of the hero in time and space, e.g. the journey as an Odyssey. Often such depictions present the period spent in Greece as a kind of 'initiation' for the protagonist.
For this reason I do not understand the myth-term in a purely material sense. The structure of the work also shows the influence of mythology:
For the presentation of my lecture, I refer only to those authors for whom 'myth' has a recognisable hermeneutic or structural function. For reasons of time I will not be able to discuss the authors or their works in detail, but I would briefly like to classify them:
Mythological elements can be found in the novel The Magus by John Fowles (1965). It is the story of an English teacher who comes to Greece in order to overcome his past and have a new – existential – experience. In his encounter with the Greeks, especially with Conchis, who acts as both mentor and magician, he is above all exposed to psychological influences – influences that lead him to a kind of balancing act between fiction and reality.
I am also interested in the French writer Jean Joubert, who in his Lézard Grec (1984) ("The Greek Lizard") seeks a poetic paradise in Greece and in his novel deals with the landscape and the people. Another interesting case is Jacques Lacarrière, with his L'étè Grec (1975) and Chemins d'écriture (1990), where in numerous passages he describes his experience of Greece over many years, with the help, among other things, of mythological motifs.
In this context I cannot omit Erasmus Schöfer, who in Death in Athens (1986) gives a kind of Anti-portrait, a highly unromantic picture of Greece.
These authors all have in common the vivid use of ancient myth on the descriptive level to portray landscape and place and particular experiences and deeds. In general this process can be described as poeticisation, if by that term one also understands (as in Schöfer's novel) a poeticisation of the ugly.
It should be stated from the outset that in the texts I have referred to the clichés of the traditional image of Greece are not simply reproduced unaltered. In many cases we find very realistic descriptions, which also include modern developments in Greece (keyword: tourism and industrialisation).
Some authors still seek the land of the Greeks in their souls, but then find e.g. concrete buildings alongside the ancient heritage.
By way of example I would like to address the first mentioned aspect of space – Greece as a global or specific mythical space. John Fowles uses myth to give the story, as befits its title, a symbolic character, as when he associates his hero with Odysseus and Greece with Circe.
The landscape of Greece is heavily mythopoetic in Fowles. Among the different areas of landscape, the islands in particular possess a magical quality. In his preface, Fowles uses mythological allusions: “The Greece of the Isles is Circe still, no place for the artist-voyager to linger long, if he cares for his soul" [Fowles: 9]. For the poet Circe evokes beauty and ravishing song, but at the same time she embodies danger, the art of seduction, death. The danger to which Fowles seeks to draw his reader's attention in the foreword leaves its mark, even if they are overcome: “I had escaped Circe, but the withdrawal symptoms were severe" [ibid.]. The poet identifies himself in this preface with Odysseus, the Odysseus who was with the utmost difficulty able to free himself from the clutches of the seductress Circe and leave the island.
Both the (fictional) Greek island of Phraxos, on which the action of The Magus chiefly takes place, as well as Greece as a whole, become embodied by mythological characters: “But with the love came a contradictory, almost irritating, feeling of impotence and inferiority, as if Greece were a woman so sensually provocative that I must fall in love with her, and at the same time so calmly aristocratic that I should never be able to approach” [ibid. 49]. A sense of powerlessness and inferiority takes possession of the hero in the face of a Greece that robs his senses, enchants him, just as a beautiful seductive woman might do, or just like the dangerous Circe: “this Circe-like quality of Greece; the quality that makes it unique" (ibid.).
The whole novel functions as an initiation ritual, with the Eleusinian mysteries as its basis. Conchis behaves like a divine entity manipulating the hero through role assignment, leading him into mysterious, baffling situations. Related to this are theatrical and, above all, sexual experiences.
At the same time, it can be observed in Fowles that the mythical mood is sometimes dispelled by reflecting on the myth as such. At times the hero withdraws from the quasi-religious spell:
"The rest was sublimely peaceful, as potential as a clean canvas, a site for myths" [ibid. 63]: Greece is expressly called the kingdom of myths. Thus, the narrator describes an ambivalent state between reality and fiction, or reality and myth, when he says: “Once more I am a man in a myth, incapable of understanding it, but somehow aware that understanding it meant it must continue, however sinister its peripateia” [ibid. 381].
Thus it becomes clear that the English author, to a certain extent, keeps merging his present-day experience of Greece with the mythological experience of Greece. It can be characterised as a remnant of the classical image of Greece, when travellers lose direct contact with the land, to experience it in the footsteps of myth.
I would now like to go into more detail about the experience of the ‘space’ by giving a few more examples. Basically one can distinguish between euphoric and dysphoric conceptions of place, but many myths are fascinating in that they can arouse positive and negative associations at the same time (e.g. Circe, and – as we shall see shortly – also the Labyrinth). As a rule, travellers to Greece focus mainly on the exotic, the Mediterranean landscape, and employ corresponding mythological images.
The dysphoric space that, contrary to tourist stereotypes, exists in Greece is almost completely overlooked by the authors.
An interesting exception here is Schöfer’s novel, Death in Athens. The title, which can be understood intertextually – as alluding both to Thomas Mann's Death in Venice and to Wolfgang Koeppen's Death in Rome – confronts us directly with the Athenian death, i.e. the danger emanating from an urban world. We read in a review of Schöfer’s novel:
“Death in Athens: With this title Schöfer risks lofty associations; one inevitably thinks of Thomas Mann's Death in Venice. But for Schöfer Athens does not stand as an atmospheric cipher, does not become a symbol of longing for extinction and a self-liberating readiness for death: Athens, the city of explosive social opposites, the city of mass misery and capital-hungry exploitation, will become the place where the rage of resistance reawakens in him, and his deadly self-hatred begins to melt” [Jörder, 1986: 12].
On the one hand, Schöfer wishes to distance himself from the idealistic, romanticised image of Greece, while on the other hand he uses ancient Greek motifs to describe the city of Athens, and thus remains within the realm of the established cultural tradition. The concrete city of Athens makes the author think of a labyrinth and the Minotaur. The labyrinth as a topographical model and as a metaphor for non-freedom is an expression of the narrator’s awareness of his surroundings, but also of his political commitment, viewing the city as the scene of capitalist exploitation and reactionary tendencies.
Athens is a “poisoned concrete labyrinth" [Schöfer: 421]; In the face of this city, the heroes are confronted with frightening, almost archaic images: “He refutes the idea that the rusty freighter, which hangs stranded on the rocks in front of the cement factories, is a victim lured by the Minotaur. It should be seen in a different way – more neutral, more contemporary” [ibid. 90].
As I am not in a position to elaborate on the theme of the 'labyrinth' in literature, I will here simply refer to the book by Manfred Schmeling The Labyrinthine Discourse. From Myth to Narrative Model, where the structural and narratological consequences are also addressed.
The experience of the chaotic city that is so opposed to the romantic experience of Greece corresponds absolutely to the experience of urban modernity. Thus the portrayal of Greece inevitably loses something of its Greek specificity. In his article, entitled The Consciousness Crisis of Modernity and the Experience of the City as a Labyrinth, Hartwig Isernhagen explores the time-honoured motif of the chaotic city: “The metropolis is the monstrous head that sits like a cancerous tumour on the body of the country, which is governed by her. The urban-rural relationship is both parasitic and oppositional: in the city are concentrated luxury and corruption, power and exploitation, cultural achievement and the charlatanism it cannot be distinguished from; the surrounding land is barren, but at the same time it provides room for small areas of order, which are not at the mercy of the disorderly dynamics of urban life. The city is a chaos of ungovernability and annihilation, the country a sanctuary under threat, in which quietly and inconspicuously something meaningful can perhaps be created” (Isernhagen, 1983: 81]. Schöfer gives similarly fearful images in his novel: ”Indistinct the mountains in the summer haze over Attica, the apartment blocks and hills of Piraeus and Athens only seen in outline under the cowl of smog that lies trapped in the broad basin, promising stifling heat. Only two white clouds of smoke motionless through the yellowish layer up into the milk-blue sky. More to be intuited than seen, behind this veil the Acropolis” [Schöfer: 84 f.].
Schöfer's imagery acknowledges the contradictions of modern civilisation: palm trees vs. industry, Coca-Cola in Greek letters, the Acropolis as a cultural oasis in the smog. Nature also threatens traditional culture. The Acropolis – the symbol of Hellenic tradition – is turned into a symbol of capitalist contradictions.
"Further down in the pale sky, a steep, white-grey rocky outcrop fracture. On the mountain, the ruins of the temple, flat, inconspicuous, as he had seen them on the poster in the Lufthansa office. If you lift your eyes from the dust, Manfred, you see the Acropolis” [ibid. 157]. Or:
"The tree that had ended up in the rotten back streets of the Plaka, the yellow-green twilight under its branches, eliminated the city-steppe of Athens shimmering with heat and noise. If anything lived here, it was asleep. Also the sleeping proximity of three thousand years of history, human history, art history, the Parthenon pediment cut out over the stained tiled roofs”[ibid. 163].
Tourism and culture appear here rather as opposites:
"The music hangs there like the printed blouses from Crete and Mykonos, Apollo and Athena and Hercules the liberator hang there like these people, who while away their time and their lives and still pay for the theft. Above, the Parthenon in artificial light, immense, spiritualised stone, humanised marble, down here all pseudo and foggy” [ibid. 254].
Once again we compare with Fowles: although John Fowles sees the urban world realistically and with critical eyes, he uses poetic tropes to describe it more strongly than Schöfer. His depiction of Athens corresponds perfectly to the negative ideas one has of the big city in the burning noonday sun of southern climes.
Fowles evokes almost an atmosphere of 'ennui' and indifference, reminiscent of existentialist descriptions of the city, such as Albert Camus' Oran:
"Athens was dust, ochre and drab. Even the palm trees were exhausted. All the humanity in human beings has retreated behind dark skins and even darker glasses, and by two in the afternoon the streets were empty, abandoned to indolence and heat" [Fowles: 245].
Only ten kilometres from Athens lies Piraeus. From Fowles’ perspective the port city of Piraeus embodies bustling, modern Greece. Typical is the mixture of cosmopolitan atmosphere ("multilingual"), trade and industry – all permeated by a touch of decadence. From this realistic perspective, Fowles' mythology seems in retrospect to be much stronger than fiction:
"Bars, multilingual neon signs, photos of strippers and belly-dancers, sailors in lounging groups, glimpses through bead curtains of Lautrec-like interiors, women in lines along the padded benches. The streets were thronged with pimps and tarts, barrow-boys selling pistachios and sunflower-pips, chestnut-sellers, pasty-sellers, lottery-ticket hawkers. Doorwomen invited us in, men slid up with wallets of watches, packets of Lucky Strike and Camel, shoddy souvenirs. And every ten yards someone whistled at Alison” [ibid. 250].
Let us now consider my second category: the hero's movements in this ‘space’ and the related mythological aspects. The authors' experience of Greece is seen by the authors themselves as an essential existential phase of their lives. At least in part, it was personal disappointments and shortcomings in their own country that caused the various writers to embark on a kind of odyssey, a search for new external and inner experiences.
Through the archetypal model of the Odyssey the Greek journey becomes for Jacques Lacarrière, as well as for Fowles and Joubert, a form of initiation. In his book Chemins d'écriture, Lacarrière describes his journey to Greece with the help of the archetypal mythological model: Odysseus. The idea of initiation, i.e. the outer and inner test that the individual has to undergo on the way to his goal, as well as the Odyssey as a motif of journeying, merge in Lacarrière’s imagination into a large syncretic image. The author evokes at one point the danger that emanates from the beauty of the Greek islands. Here lies the temptation that could prevent the poet from focusing on his work:
"A Patmos, bien que je n'y aie pas rencontré Calypso, j'ai compris expérimentalement les tentations d'Ulysse. En ces îles blanches essaimées sur la mer comme des jeux, des patiences délaissées par un enfant-dieux, tout conspire à vous vider de toute résolution. [...] Eh oui, je l'ignorais alors et c'est ainsi que je l'appris: les mythes grecs sont vrais, en tout cas ceux que rapporte l'Odyssée. Pour pouvoir résister au chant des sirènes, il faut comme Ulysse avoir un mât solide et droit, s'y amarrer solidement si l'on veut écouter sans risque le chant fatal. Mon mât, bien sûr, ce fût le tilleul. Grâce à lui, je suis revenu initié des îles grecques" [Lacarrière, 1991: 125 f.].
Lacarrière subtly expresses how the initiatory process – or Odyssey – takes place in a foreign environment: as a temptation that must be resisted. Here the foreign (Greece) and the familiar (France) oppose each other as antipodes: the danger emanating from the sirens is for the foreigner in Greece the danger of inactivity, of the Epicurean.
At one point, Lacarrière speaks specifically of this danger: of the pure sensual pleasure of forgetting to write. The mast of Odysseus, the symbol of resilience, becomes in the imagination of the traveller to Greece the 'tilleul', the linden tree. And the linden tree is now the symbol of what is familiar, the nature of one’s homeland, the rooting in a 'distant' home [cf. ibid.].
Fowles also refers to a number of other mythological motifs that symbolise the paths, indeed, in a more abstract sense, the complex of paths and stations, which await the hero.
Odysseus, Theseus or Oedipus, with whom the narrator sometimes identifies his protagonist, virtually symbolise the complex movement of the hero in this space, which runs parallel to the process of realisation, as it were: “and as I walked there came the strangest feeling, compounded of the early hour, the absolute solitude, and what had happened, of having entered a myth; a knowledge of what it was like physically, moment by moment, to have been young and ancient, a Ulysses on his way to meet Circe, a Theseus on his journey to Crete, an Oedipus still searching for his destiny" (Fowles: 157].
Likewise Martin in Jean Joubert's novel Le lézard grec momentarily conceives of his stay in Greece as a dangerous Odyssey: ”Dans ce fond de baie, vers le quel on aurait pu douter qu'il y eut d'autre accès que la mer, il sentait qu'ils avaient tous trois pris la fuite, au dernier instant, comme Ulysse et ses compagnons devant la colère de Cyclope aveuglé...” [Joubert: 1871].
Let me briefly take stock:
My special interest was the literary presentation by modern authors of experiences of Greece. We have been able to observe, from an international perspective, how much these experiences, occurring between the 60s and the 80s, are blended with the narrators’ knowledge of mythology. This creates an inner tension that is reflected in the literary treatment. On the one hand, the authors offer an alternative to the traditional image of Greece by bringing it up to date historically, as in the case of Schöfer – substantially de-idealising it: they deprive it of myth, so to speak.
On the other hand, they re-mythologise real experiences with the help of images and motifs that derive from the ancient tradition. Perhaps it is precisely this aesthetically and ethically fruitful contradiction that makes the reading of such modern novels about Greece so fascinating.
Bibliography
Fowles, John: The Magus, London (Picador) 1977
Jörder, Gerhard: Verlorene Träume, neugewonnene Wut. In: Badische Zeitung vom 24.09.86
Joubert, Jean: Le lézard grec, Paris (Grasset) 1984
Isernhagen, Hartwig: Die Bewußstseinskrise der Moderne und die Erfahrung der Stadt als Labyrinth. In: Die Stadt in der Literatur, hrsg. von E. Schraut. Göttingen (Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht) 1983
Lacarriére, Jacques: Chemins d'écriture, Paris (Plon) 1991
Schmeling, Manfred: Der labyrinthische Diskurs. Vom Mythos zum Erzählmodell. Frankfurt (Athenäum) 1987
Schöfer, Erasmus: Tod in Aihen, Dortmund (Weltkreis) 1986
Greek to English: Simone Weil: The slaves’ unspoken cry and the foolishness of love General field: Other Detailed field: Philosophy
Source text - Greek
Σταύρος Ζουμπουλάκης
Επίμετρο
Η βουβή κραυγή των σκλάβων και η μωρία της αγάπης
Το κύριο έργο της Σιμόν Βέιλ τους τελευταίους εννιά μήνες της ζωής της στο Λονδίνο (14 Δεκεμβρίου 1942 - 24 Αυγούστου 1943) είναι ασφαλώς το L’ Enracinement (Το ρίζωμα). Στο περιθώριο αυτού του μεγάλου από κάθε άποψη έργου, η πάντοτε πυρετική Βέιλ θα γράψει και πολλά άλλα μικρότερα, δουλεύοντας ασταμάτητα, νύχτα μέρα. Το σημαντικότερο από αυτά είναι, κατά τη γνώμη μου, το «La personne et le sacré». Το κείμενο περιλήφθηκε για πρώτη φορά σε βιβλίο το 1957, στον τόμο Écrits de Londres et dernières lettres (Γραπτά του Λονδίνου και τελευταία γράμματα), στη σειρά Espoir των εκδόσεων Gallimard, την οποία είχε ιδρύσει και διεύθυνε ο Καμύ, από όπου και η παρούσα μετάφραση. Ο τίτλος του κειμένου δόθηκε μάλλον από την οικογένεια της Βέιλ, όχι αυθαίρετα πάντως, αφού στο χειρόγραφο υπήρχε η επικεφαλίδα «La personne humaine est-elle sacrée?» («Είναι το ανθρώπινο πρόσωπο ιερό;»). Στη θέση του τίτλου η Βέιλ είχε θέσει μια σειρά λέξεις, που στην έκδοση του 1957 τέθηκαν ως υπότιτλος: Collectivité – Personne – Impersonnel – Droit – Justice (Συλλογικότητα – Πρόσωπο – Απρόσωπο – Δικαίωμα – Δικαιοσύνη).
Το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό δεν έχει εκδοθεί ακόμη στην πολύτομη έκδοση των Απάντων της Βέιλ, πάντα από τις εκδόσεις Γκαλλιμάρ, που ξεκίνησε το 1988 (δεν έχει κυκλοφορήσει δηλαδή ο τόμος V,1, στον οποίο θα περιλαμβανεται. Το κείμενο δεν περιλήφθηκε δυστυχώς ούτε στην έκδοση Simon Weil, Oeuvres, Quarto/Gallimard (1999). Τα δύο τελευταία χρόνια ωστόσο γνώρισε στη Γαλλία τρεις αυτοτελείς εκδόσεις!
Το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό είναι ένα πολεμικό κείμενο. Στρέφεται με ένταση εναντίον της ιδέας του προσώπου και κυρίως εναντίον της σύνδεσης του ανθρώπινου προσώπου με το ιερό. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, αρχή αρχή του κειμένου, ως πολεμικό στόχο της η Βέιλ ορίζει την περσοναλιστική φιλοσοφία. Της προσάπτει ότι η έννοια του προσώπου που διατυπώνει είναι θολή και συγκεχυμένη. Δεν υπάρχει ωστόσο ούτε μία αναφορά στον Μουνιέ (Emmanuel Mounier) ούτε μία παραπομπή σε έργο του. Ακόμη και αν τον είχε διαβάσει, είναι βέβαιο πως δεν τον είχε διαβάσει προσεκτικά. Ούτως ή άλλως όμως το κείμενο αυτό δεν είναι ακαδημαϊκή φιλοσοφική μελέτη, τα γλωσσικά επιχειρήματα άλλωστε με τα οποία αντικρούει τον περσοναλισμό δεν είναι σοβαρά. Άλλα πράγματα απασχολούν την Βέιλ. Το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό πάντως δεν γράφεται χωρίς ερέθισμα. Την εποχή εκείνη διεξαγόταν συζήτηση στη Γαλλία γύρω από την ιδέα του προσώπου και η Βέιλ ήταν ενήμερη. Η Φλοράνς ντε Λυσσύ (Florence de Lussy), από τους καλύτερους γνώστες του έργου της, στον πρόλογό της σε αυτοτελή έκδοση του Προσώπου και του ιερού (βλ. σημείωση 2), θεωρεί ότι το γεγονός που πυροδότησε τούτο το κείμενο ήταν η διάλεξη του Αντρέ Φιλίπ (André Philip), στη Νέα Υόρκη (7 Νοεμβρίου 1942), «Les fondements juridiques et moraux de la resistance française» («Τα νομικά και ηθικά θεμέλια της γαλλικής αντίστασης»), την οποία η Βέιλ την είχε παρακολουθήσει. Ο Αντρέ Φιλίπ, ο οποίος θα εντάξει τη Βέιλ στις Υπηρεσίες της Ελεύθερης Γαλλίας στο Λονδίνο, είχε κάνει λόγο στη διάλεξή του για «τη θεμελιώδη ιδέα του ιερού χαρακτήρα του ανθρώπινου προσώπου». Ένα άλλο κείμενο το οποίο μπορούμε με σιγουριά να πιθανολογήσουμε, στα όρια της βεβαιότητας, ότι είχε διαβάσει είναι το πολύ καλό δοκίμιο του Ζαν Λακρουά (Jean Lacroix, 1900-1986), «Personne, idividu et communauté» («Πρόσωπο, άτομο και κοινότητα»). Πάντως, όσο ενήμερη και αν ήταν η Βέιλ για τη διεξαγόμενη συζήτηση δεν παίρνει ουσιαστικά μέρος σε αυτήν, αλλά στρέφεται εκ προοιμίου και μαχητικά εναντίον της ιδέας του προσώπου.
Υπάρχει πράγματι κάτι ιερό στον άνθρωπο, δέχεται και η Βέιλ, αλλά αυτό δεν είναι το πρόσωπο, ιερό στον άνθρωπο είναι το απρόσωπο και μόνο αυτό. Η έννοια του ιερού για τη Βέιλ δεν είναι θρησκειολογική, ιερό δεν είναι το κεχωρισμένο και απαγορευμένο, το numen ή το mysterium tremendum, ιερό είναι το αγαθό. Μόνη πηγή του ιερού είναι το αγαθό. Μέσα σε κάθε άνθρωπο ζει ανεπίγνωστα στο βάθος της καρδιάς του η προσδοκία του καλού. Η ιερότητα του ανθρώπου είναι ακριβώς η επιθυμία να μην του κάνουν κακό, το παράπονο όταν του κάνουν και η προσδοκία να του κάνουν καλό. Στη μακρά ιστορία του κακού, οι αναρίθμητοι άνθρωποι που έχουν βασανιστεί από τους κάθε λογής ισχυρούς, οι τσαλαπατημένοι άνθρωποι, οι σκλάβοι, αυτή την επιθυμία και προσδοκία δεν μπορούν πάντα να την εκφράσουν. Μένει ωστόσο ανεξάλειπτα ζωντανή, ένας αλάλητος στεναγμός, μια ανεκφώνητη διαμαρτυρία. Αντηχεί μέσα τους αδιάκοπα η βουβή κραυγή «γιατί μου κάνετε κακό;». Αλλά και όσοι μπορούν να εκφράσουν τη βαθιά επιθυμία να μην τους κάνουν κακό, δεν μπορούν να την εκφράσουν με συνεχή λόγο. Ψελλίζουν, όπως εκείνος ο μικρός κλέφτης, που έκλεψε καρότα από ένα χωράφι για να χορτάσει λίγο την πείνα του, και στέκεται μπροστά στον ευφραδή δικαστή, ο οποίος από το ύψος της έδρας του έχει την άνεση να κάνει κομψά αστεία. Ο αλάλητος στεναγμός των αδικημένων, το ψέλλισμά τους, η βουβή κραυγή της οδυνηρής έκπληξής τους όταν τους κάνουν κακό, τίποτε από όλα αυτά δεν έχει προσωπικά χαρακτηριστικά. Αυτή η απρόσωπη, βουβή διαμαρτυρία ενάντια στο κακό, αξεχώριστα με την ανεπίγνωστη προσδοκία του καλού, αυτό είναι το ιερό!
Η σφοδρότητα με την οποία η Βέιλ επιτίθεται κατά της ιδέας του προσώπου ξενίζει, δεδομένου μάλιστα ότι η λέξη και η ιδέα αυτή ανήκουν πρωτίστως στη χριστιανική κληρονομιά. Ο Χριστός είναι πρόσωπο, και οι αναφορές ή οι επικλήσεις στο πρόσωπό του, στα κάθε είδους χριστιανικά κείμενα, είναι κυριολεκτικά αμέτρητες. Την Αγία Τριάδα τη συγκροτούν τρία πρόσωπα, και επίσης κάθε άνθρωπος που μετέχει σε μια χριστιανική σύναξη ή κοινότητα ορίζεται, ήδη από την Καινή Διαθήκη, ως πρόσωπο (2 Κορ 1:11). Η Βέιλ το ξέρει αυτό (σ. 42), αλλά το προσπερνάει πολύ εύκολα. Επιπλέον, ο περσοναλισμός, εναντίον του οποίου ρητά στρέφεται, είναι ένα ρεύμα σκέψης χριστιανικής εμπνεύσεως. Με την ιδέα του προσώπου οι περσοναλιστές θέλησαν να διαφοροποιηθούν τόσο από τον άκρατο ατομικισμό των φιλελευθέρων όσο και από τον κοινωνισμό των μαρξιστών. Πράγματι, η συζήτηση εκείνης της εποχής στη Γαλλία, έθετε κατεξοχήν δύο ζητήματα: πρώτον, τη σχέση προσώπου και ατόμου και, δεύτερον, τη σχέση προσώπου και κοινότητας. Ο Μουνιέ στο Μανιφέστο του διακήρυττε ότι ένας πολιτισμός του προσώπου αποτελεί απάντηση στον κάθε κοπής ατομικισμό και, ταυτόχρονα, στη μαζική κοινωνία. Το άτομο είναι εγωϊσμός, ναρκισσισμός, πλεονεξία, σκόρπισμα, ενώ το πρόσωπο είναι γενναιοδωρία και συγκέντρωση. Η μαζική κοινωνία αποτελεί άθροισμα ανώνυμων μονάδων, ενώ ο πολιτισμός του προσώπου εγγυάται την αλληλέγγυα ζωή προσώπου και κοινότητας. Η επανάσταση –δική του η λέξη- που προτείνει με θέρμη ο Μουνιέ είναι περσοναλιστική και, γι’ αυτό ακριβώς, κοινοτική. Δεν είναι λοιπόν πράγματι να παραξενεύεται κανείς, μετά από όσα λίγα σημειώσαμε παραπάνω, που η Βέιλ στρέφεται με τόσο πάθος εναντίον της ιδέας του προσώπου; Τι είναι αυτό που προκαλεί το πολεμικό μένος της;
Η Βέιλ, για να μην βραδυπορούμε, θεωρεί ότι πρόσωπο σημαίνει προνόμια, κοινωνικά προνόμια (σ. 22). Ο σκλάβος στις φυτείες με την αλυσίδα στο πόδι ή ο άλλος στην αλυσίδα του εργοστασίου δεν έχει πρόσωπο. Είναι τσαλαπατημένα σώματα και ψυχές, δαρμένα ζώα. Πρόσωπο έχουν μόνο οι προνομιούχοι. Οι άλλοι δεν έχουν πρόσωπο, άρα δεν έχουν και φωνή. Υποφέρουν βουβά. Το πολύ πολύ να ψελλίσουν. Τι πρόσωπο μπορεί να έχουν οι κρατούμενοι του Άουσβιτς ή του Γκουλάγκ; Oι κολασμένοι της γης δεν έχουν ούτε πρόσωπο ούτε ταλέντο. Το ταλέντο δεν είναι φυσικό χάρισμα, είναι κοινωνικό προνόμιο, μόνο οι προνομιούχοι έχουν ταλέντο. Η Βέιλ σε όλη τη ζωή της διάλεξε να είναι με αυτούς που δεν έχουν πρόσωπο, με τους κατατρεγμένους, πάσχισε να ταυτιστεί μαζί τους, να ακούσει και να μεταδώσει τη βουβή διαμαρτυρία τους. Ήξερε καλά μέσα της, αυτή η απόφοιτη της École Normale Supérieure της rue d’ Ulm, ότι δεν ανήκε σε αυτούς, ήξερε ότι η κοινωνική μοίρα την είχε τοποθετήσει στην άλλη μεριά, και έκανε τα πάντα για να μη ζήσει ως προνομιούχος. Αυτό ήταν για εκείνη ένας αβάσταχτος εσωτερικός διχασμός και πόνος. Τον έλυσε με την εθελούσια ουσιαστικά έξοδό της από τη ζωή. Για τη Βέιλ αποτελεί αναίδεια να μιλάς σε αυτούς τους ανθρώπους για πρόσωπο και ελεύθερη ανάπτυξη της προσωπικότητας. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι είσαι ανίκανος να τους ακούσεις. Για να μπορέσεις να ακούσεις την ανάκουστη φωνή ή τα ψελλίσματά τους, χρειάζεται ένα περιβάλλον σιωπής και ένα είδος προσοχής, που δεν είναι κάτι διαφορετικό από την καθαρή αγάπη (σ. 5-6).
Η πολεμική της Βέιλ κατά του προσώπου δεν την οδηγεί στην υπεράσπιση του «εμείς», της κοινότητας, της συλλογικότητας. Τουναντίον, για τη Βέιλ η συλλογικότητα αποτελεί από παλιά παράγοντα υποδούλωσης του ανθρώπου. Στο πρώτο μεγάλο έργο της, το Réflexions sur les causes de la liberté et de l’ oppression sociale (1934), στρέφεται με σφοδρότητα εναντίον της συλλογικότητας που καθιστά τους ανθρώπους υποχείριά της. Το δικό της ιδεώδες είναι άλλο: «μια κοινωνία όπου η συλλογική ζωή θα υποτάσσεται στους ανθρώπους εννοούμενους ως άτομα αντί να τους υποτάσσει». Στην ιδέα αυτή η Βέιλ θα μείνει αμετακίνητη. Το μέρος της ψυχής που λέει «εμείς» είναι απείρως πιο επικίνδυνο από το μέρος της που λέει «εγώ» (σ. 9). Η απόδοση ιερού χαρακτήρα στη συλλογικότητα είναι, ούτε λίγο ούτε πολύ, ειδωλολατρία, το μεγαλύτερο έγκλημα κάθε εποχής και κάθε χώρας (σ. 10). Ένας μόνο τρόπος υπάρχει για να γλιτώσει ο άνθρωπος από τη συνθλιπτική δύναμη της συλλογικότητας:
να υψωθεί πάνω από το προσωπικό για να εισδύσει στο απρόσωπο. Εκείνη τη στιγμή υπάρχει κάτι μέσα του, ένα κομματάκι της ψυχής του, πάνω στο οποίο τίποτε συλλογικό δεν μπορεί να ασκήσει επιρροή. Αν μπορεί να ριζώσει στο απρόσωπο καλό [...], τότε είναι σε θέση [...] να στρέψει μια δύναμη, μικρή ασφαλώς αλλά πραγματική, εναντίον οποιασδήποτε συλλογικότητας, χωρίς να στηρίζεται σε μια άλλη συλλογικότητα. (σ. 11-12)
Η πολεμική της Βέιλ κατά του προσώπου δεν μπορεί να αποσυνδεθεί από την κριτική της κατά των ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων. Είναι μία και ενιαία. Η οξυδερκής Βέιλ έχει καταλάβει σωστά, χωρίς να έχει προσφύγει σε διεξοδικές ιστορικές μελέτες, ότι η ανάδυση της ιδέας των ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων και της καθολικής αξιοπρέπειας του ανθρώπου είναι απότοκη μιας προϊούσας ιεροποίησης του προσώπου. Ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα και ιερότητα του ανθρώπινου προσώπου πάνε αξεχώριστα μαζί. Η ιδέα και η θεσμοθέτηση των ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων γεννιέται τον 18ο αιώνα, είναι καρπός του Διαφωτισμού και της Γαλλικής Επανάστασης, ενώ η Καθολική Εκκλησία, ο θεματοφύλακας της ιδέας ότι ο άνθρωπος είναι εικόνα Θεού, στρέφεται εναντίον τους. Η Εκκλησία, για να μην μακρηγορούμε, φοβάται, όχι αδικαιολόγητα, ότι τα ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα, όπως τα κηρύττει ο Διαφωτισμός και η Γαλλική Επανάσταση, θα πάρουν τη θέση των δικαιωμάτων του Θεού, ότι ο άνθρωπος θα εκθρονίσει τον Θεό. Έπρεπε να φτάσουμε ουσιαστικά στη Β΄Βατικανή, στον πάπα Ιωάννη ΚΓ’ και στον πάπα Παύλο ΣΤ΄, για να αποδεχτεί η Καθολική Εκκλησία τα δικαιώματα του ανθρώπου, να τα ενσωματώσει στη διδασκαλία της και, ακόμη περισσότερο, να αναλάβει πρωταγωνιστικό ρόλο στην υπεράσπισή τους παντού στον κόσμο. Ωστόσο πριν από την επίσημη αναγνώριση, μια ομάδα χριστιανών στοχαστών του εικοστού αιώνα, θα διεκδικήσει ως πηγή των δικαιωμάτων το ίδιο το Ευαγγέλιο. Κάτι περισσότερο: θα προσπαθήσει όχι απλώς να συμφιλιώσει τον χριστιανισμό με τη δημοκρατία, αλλά να ορίσει ως κύριο θεμέλιο της δημοκρατίας την ευαγγελική διδασκαλία. Κορυφαίος ανάμεσά τους ο Ζακ Μαριταίν. Τη Βέιλ ωστόσο δεν την πείθει ούτε καν τη συγκινεί αυτό το εγχείρημα, αντίθετα μάλιστα την εξοργίζει. Ο Μαριταίν και το βιβλίο του Les droits de l’ homme et la loi naturelle (Τα δικαιώματα του ανθρώπου και ο φυσικός νόμος) θα αποτελέσουν πολεμικό στόχο της. Το βιβλίο εκδόθηκε το 1942 στη Νέα Υόρκη, η Βέιλ το διάβασε και το μνημονεύει αντιρρητικά στο Ρίζωμα. Στο βιβλίο αυτό, όπου ο Μαριταίν υπερασπίζεται το πρόσωπο, τόσο εναντίον του ατόμου όσο και εναντίον μιας κοινωνίας που απορροφά τα πρόσωπα, υπάρχουν πολλά που θα εξόργισαν τη Βέιλ, καθώς το διάβαζε, όπως όλα όσα γράφει ο συγγραφέας του για την ελευθερία του προσώπου και την ανάπτυξή του (epanouissement) ή για το δικαίωμα καθενός να είναι κύριος του εαυτού του και να ορίζει τη ζωή του. Τι σχέση έχουν όλα αυτά με τους δυστυχισμένους, θα σκεφτόταν εκείνη και θα θύμωνε. Ο Μαριταίν αποτελεί πολεμικό στόχο της Βέιλ και στο Πρόσωπο και το ιερό, χωρίς ωστόσο να κατονομάζεται (όπως άλλωστε δεν κατονομάζεται και ο Μουνιέ). Το εν λόγω βιβλίο του Μαριταίν αντικρούεται εδώ σχεδόν σημείο προς σημείο. Ο Γάλλος Καθολικός θεωρεί, στο συγκεκριμένο βιβλίο του, όπως και σε άλλα έργα του, ότι το μόνο δυνατό θεμέλιο οικουμενικών ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων δεν μπορεί να είναι άλλο έξω από το φυσικό δίκαιο. Για τον Μαριταίν, εντελώς αντίθετα από τη Βέιλ,
Η έννοια του δικαιώματος είναι μάλιστα βαθύτερη από εκείνη της ηθικής υποχρέωσης, γιατί ο Θεός έχει κυριαρχικό δικαίωμα επί των κτισμάτων και δεν έχει ηθική υποχρέωση απέναντί τους (ακόμη και αν οφείλει στον εαυτό του να τους παρέχει ό,τι απαιτείται από τη φύση τους).
Για τον Μαριταίν, το πρόσωπο έχει δικαιώματα εκ του γεγονότος και μόνο ότι είναι πρόσωπο και σε τελική ανάλυση δημιούργημα του Θεού.
Κάθε δικαίωμα που κατέχει ο άνθρωπος το κατέχει δυνάμει του δικαιώματος που κατέχει ο Θεός -ο οποίος είναι η καθαρή Δικαιοσύνη- να βλέπει στα όντα την τάξη της σοφίας του να γίνεται σεβαστή, να υπακούεται και να αγαπιέται εξ όλης της διανοίας.
Τα ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα, κατά τον Μαριταίν, δεν είναι μια κληρονομιά που μας άφησε ο 18ος αιώνας και ο Διαφωτισμός, αλλά είναι κληρονομιά της κλασικής σκέψης και του Ευαγγελίου. Από την κλασική αρχαιότητα ο Μαριταίν στέκεται, όπως πολλοί άλλοι, στην Αντιγόνη, την «αιώνια ηρωίδα του φυσικού δικαίου, το οποίο οι Αρχαίοι αποκαλούσαν άγραφο νόμο [υπογραμμίζει ο συγγραφέας], ονομασία που του ταιριάζει καλύτερα». Στον αντίποδα η Βέιλ, η οποία ταυτιζόταν με την Αντιγόνη:
Αποτελεί σύγχυση που δεν έχει το όμοιο της να ταυτίζουμε τον άγραφο νόμο της Αντιγόνης με το φυσικό δίκαιο. (σ. 19)
Όταν η μικρή χαζή λέει στον λογικό Κρέοντα «δεν γεννήθηκα για να μισώ, αλλά για να αγαπώ», εκείνος της απαντάει να πάει τότε να ζήσει στον άλλο κόσμο, μαζί με αυτούς που αγαπάει, η Βέιλ σχολιάζει ως εξής:
Εκεί πράγνματι ήταν η αληθινή θέση της. Διότι ο άγραφος νόμος στον οποίο υπάκουε αυτό το κορίτσι, και ο οποίος δεν είχε απολύτως τίποτε κοινό με κανένα δικαίωμα και με οτιδήποτε φυσικό, δεν διέφερε διόλου από την άκρα, παράλογη αγάπη που οδήγησε τον Χριστό στον Σταυρό. (σ. 20)
Ας μου επιτραπεί στο σημείο αυτό μια μικρή παρέκβαση. Η Βέιλ κάνει λάθος εν προκειμένω να ταυτίζει το συμφιλείν της Αντιγόνης με την αγάπη του Χριστού. Μολονότι γνώριζε αρχαία ελληνικά δεν πρόσεξε όσο έπρεπε, όπως και πάμπολλοι άλλοι, το πρώτο συνθετικό του ρήματος αυτού (όπως και του συνέχθειν, που προηγείται). Η αγάπη για την οποία δηλώνει ότι γεννήθηκε δεν απευθύνεται σε όλους αλλά στους δικούς της, στα αδέρφια της, σε αυτούς με τους οποίους την ενώνει η κοινή μήτρα. Όπως και να ’ναι όμως η Βέιλ, με το παράδειγμα της Αντιγόνης και του Χριστού, θέλει να πει απλώς ότι το δικαίωμα δεν έχει καμιά σχέση με την αγάπη -φαντάζεται κανείς τον άγιο Φραγκίσκο της Ασίζης να μιλάει για δικαιώματα; (σ. 20)- και ότι η Δικαιοσύνη, σύνοικος των θεών του κάτω κόσμου, ταυτίζεται με την αγάπη. Η Βέιλ θεωρεί ότι ο Μαριταίν, με όλα όσα γράφει για τον άνθρωπο ως κύριο της ζωής του, υποβιβάζει το δικαίωμα ακόμη πιο χαμηλά και από τη διεκδίκηση, το υποβιβάζει στο επίπεδο της επιθυμίας (σ. 22).
Η Βέιλ στρέφεται μαχητικά εναντίον της ιδέας των ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων, επειδή τα δικαιώματα έχουν πραγματική υπόσταση, μόνο όταν υπάρχει κάποιος που τα αναγνωρίζει, αποτελούν δηλαδή υπόθεση διαπραγμάτευσης, δοσοληψίας, παζαρέματος (σ. 17). Τα διαπνέει άρα μια εμπορική κια ποσοτική λογική. Κάτι περισσότερο: τα δικαιώματα είναι τελικά υπόθεση δύναμης, συσχετισμού δυνάμεων, υπάρχουν μόνο όταν αυτοί που τα διεκδικούν έχουν τη δύναμη να τα επιβάλουν σε εκείνους που τα αρνούνται ή τα αμφισβητούν. «Το δικαίωμα εξαρτάται εκ φύσεως από τη δύναμη» (σ. 18), βρίσκεται «λίγο πάνω από την ωμή δύναμη» (σ. 17). Το δικαίωμα είναι πολεμικό (σ. 21), δεν έχει καμία σχέση με την αγάπη (σ. 20). Η δύναμη όμως γεννάει τη δύναμη, η βία τη βία, σε έναν ατελεύτητο φαύλο κύκλο. Το δικαίωμα επομένως δεν οδηγεί ποτέ στην έξοδο από αυτό τον κύκλο του αίματος, αλλά αντίθετα αποτελεί μέρος του.
Την εποχή που η Ευρώπη πολεμάει τη ναζιστική βαρβαρότητα, η ένοια της Βέιλ, θα μπορούσε να αναρωτηθεί ο αναγνώστης, είναι η πολεμική κατά των ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων; Χρειάζεται πράγματι μια εξήγηση. Η Βέιλ στο Λονδίνο εργάζεται για λογαριασμό της Ελεύθερης Γαλλίας του Στρατηγού ντε Γκωλ, (θα παραιτηθεί στις 26. 7. 1943). Εκείνη επιθυμεί να την στείλουν σε μυστική αποστολή στην κατεχόμενη Γαλλία, αλλά οι αρμόδιοι δεν θα το κάνουν ποτέ, τόσο για να προστατέψουν την ίδια όσο και τους άλλους που θα συνεργάζονταν μαζί της. Αντί λοιπόν να πέσει με αλεξίπτωτο στη Γαλλία, γράφει κείμενα στην Υπηρεσία Εσωτερικών (Commissariat National à l’ Intérieur et au Travail) της Ελεύθερης Γαλλίας, τα οποία δεν λαμβάνει κανείς ουσιαστικά υπ’όψιν του. Την εποχή εκείνη πρέπει να ετοιμαστεί μια νέα διακήρυξη των δικαιωμάτων του ανθρώπου για τον μεταπολεμικό κόσμο. Σε αυτή ακριβώς τη συγκυρία και στο πλαίσιο των υπηρεσιακών καθηκόντων της, η Βέιλ ασχολείται με τα δικαιώματα. Εργάζεται πυρετωδώς, αλλά ο καρπός αυτής της εργασίας δεν είναι αυτό που περίμεναν από εκείνη, μα εντελώς αντίθετα το Προοίμιο σε μια διακήρυξη καθηκόντων προς τον άνθρωπο/Prélude à une déclaration envers l’ être humain, το έργο δηλαδή που θα γίνει παγκόσμια γνωστό ως Ρίζωμα, μια συνολική πρόταση για ένα νέο πολιτισμό, στον οποίο το έργο της δικαιοσύνης ανατίθεται στην αγάπη.
Το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό, παρά τα όσα έχουμε πει μέχρι τώρα, κρατάει ακόμη καλά κλειστό το μυστικό του. Για να κατανοήσουμε την πολεμική της Βέιλ εναντίον του προσώπου και των δικαιωμάτων του, χρειάζεται ένα ακόμη βήμα. Πρέπει να κατανοήσουμε την έννοια της δυστυχίας (malheur), όπως τη σκέφτηκε η Βέιλ, κυρίως κατά τη δεύτερη περίοδο της ζωής και του έργου της, μετά δηλαδή την αναρπαγή της από τον Χριστό («ο ίδιος ο Χριστός κατέβηκε και με πήρε»). Η Βέιλ αρχίζει να σκέφτεται τα κοινωνικά ζητήματα από το σημείο της δυστυχίας (σ. 24). Η δυστυχία, κάτι διαφορετικό από τον πόνο (douleur) και την οδύνη (souffrance), ορίχει το σημείο αφετηρίας της κοινωνικής και πολιτικής σκέψης της. Ένα χρόνο πριν από το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό, λίγες μέρες πριν φύγει από τη Μασσαλία για τη Νέα Υόρκη, η Βέιλ θα γράψει με μια μονοκοντυλιά και θα στείλει στον π. Περρέν (Perrin) το συγκλονιστικό μα και πολύ δύσκολο κείμενο L’ amour de Dieu et le malheur (Η αγάπη του Θεού και η δυστυχία).
Η δυστυχία, το μόνο πραγματικό αίνιγμα, είναι ένα ξερίζωμα της ζωής, ισοδύναμη σχεδόν με τον θάνατο. Η δυστυχία κυριεύει την ψυχή, τη χαρακώνει, τη σημαδεύει με πυρωμένο σίδερο. Αυτό που προκαλεί τη δυστυχία είναι ο τυφλός μηχανισμός της αναγκαιότητας.
Αν ο μηχανισμός δεν ήταν τυφλός, δεν θα υπήρχε καθόλου δυστυχία. Η δυστυχία είναι πρώτα από όλα ανώνυμη, στερεί όσους κυριεύει από την προσωπικότητά τους και τους κάνει πράγματα. Είναι αδιάφορη, και το ψύχος αυτής της αδιαφορίας, ένα ψύχος μεταλλικό, παγώνει όσους αγγίζει μέχρι τα βάθη της ψυχής τους. Δεν θα ξαναβρούν ποτέ πια τη ζεστασιά. Δεν θα πιστέψουν ποτέ ξανά ότι είναι κάποιοι.
Η δυστυχία χτυπάει τον άνθρωπο και στις τρεις διαστάσεις του: στο σώμα (με τον πόνο), στην ψυχή (με την απόγνωση), και στην κοινωνική θέση του (με την έκπτωση και την απαξίωση). Δυστυχισμένος είναι, ανάλογα με την περίσταση και τον τροχό της μοίρας, «ο πρόσφυγας, ο νέγρος, ο άρρωστος, ο υπότροπος κατάδικος, και όλα τα παρόμοια». Ας παρατηρήσω στο σημείο αυτό ότι, όταν το κακό δεν το προκαλεί ο άνθρωπος στον άνθρωπο, αλλά η τυφλή δύναμη της φύσης, η ανίατη αρρώστια, η τρέλα, η επιδημία, τότε η αλάλητη κραυγή τους δεν λέει «γιατί μου κάνουν κακό;», όπως όταν το κακό το προκαλεί ο άνθρωπος, ο άδικος και ισχυρός, αλλά «γιατί μου γίνεται κακό;» «γιατί να υποφέρω;». Αν την πρώτη κραυγή («γιατί μου κάνουν κακό;») υπάρχει πιθανότητα να την ακούσει κάποιος, τη δεύτερη ποιος άραγε την ακούει;
Η δυστυχία, ως καταστροφή της προσωπικότητας του ανθρώπου, ορίζει το πέρασμα στην ανωνυμία. Ο δυστυχισμένος αδειάζει από τον εαυτό του, κενώνεται. «Όπως ο Χριστός κενώθηκε από τη θεότητά του από αγάπη, ο δυστυχισμένος κενώθηκε από την ανθρωπινότητα του εξαιτίας της κακής του τύχης». Η δυστυχία είναι αποκρουστική και γελοία, και γι’ αυτό όλοι οι άνθρωποι περιφρονούν τους δυστυχισμένους, τους αποστρέφονται, αδυνατούν να τους συμπονέσουν. Όλοι, εκτός από εκείνους που την ψυχή τους την έχει κατοικήσει ο Χριστός. Το έλεος για τους δυστυχισμένους είναι θαύμα, το θαύμα των θαυμάτων. Επειδή όμως ακριβώς η δυστυχία είναι αδυναμία, μπορεί να γίνει ευεργετική, μπορεί να στρέψει το βλέμμα μας προς τον Σταυρό του Χριστού. «Η δυστυχία χωρίς τον Σταυρό είναι κόλαση, και ο Θεός δεν έβαλε την κόλαση στη γη». Πρέπει, άρα, να αγαπήσουμε, όχι την ίδια τη δυστυχία, αλλά τη δυνατότητα της δυστυχίας, τη κοινή για όλους δυνατότητά της ανά πάσα στιγμή, επειδή ακριβώς μπορεί να οδηγήσει τον άνθρωπο να πλησιάσει το μυστήριο της αγάπης του Θεού.
Προσάπτουν συχνά στον χριστιανισμό ότι ευνοεί νοσηρά την οδύνη, τον πόνο. Λάθος. Στον χριστιανισμό δεν πρόκειται για τον πόνο και την οδύνη, που είναι αισθήματα, ψυχικές καταστάσεις, όπου είναι πάντα δυνατό να αναζητήσει κανείς μια διάστροφη απόλαυση. Πρόκειται για εντελώς άλλο πράγμα. Πρόκειται για τη δυστυχία. Η δυστυχία δεν είναι ψυχική κατάσταση. Είναι κονιορτοποίηση της ψυχής από την μηχανική ωμότητα των περιστάσεων. Η μεταλλαγή ενός ανθρώπου, στα ίδια του τα μάτια, από την ανθρώπινη κατάσταση στην κατάσταση του σκουληκιού, που σαλεύει μισολυωμένο στο έδαφος, είναι μια ενέργεια την οποία ούτε ένας διεστραμμένος δεν μπορεί να αποδεχτεί. Ούτε ο σοφός, ο ήρωας, ο άγιος μπορούν να την αποδεχτούν. Η δυστυχία είναι αυτό που επιβάλλεται σε έναν άνθρωπο εντελώς παρά τη θέλησή του. Ουσία και ορισμός της είναι εκείνη η φρίκη, εκείνη η εξέγερση όλης της ύπαρξης του ανθρώπου που έχει κυριευτεί από αυτήν. Σε αυτό ακριβώς πρέπει να δώσουμε τη συγκατάθεσή μας, χάρις στην υπερφυσική αγάπη.
Με φυσικό τρόπο δεν είναι δυνατό να γνωρίσουμε τη δυστυχία, χρειάζεται ένα είδος υπερφυσικής εύνοιας. Χωρίς την υπερφυσική αγάπη δεν είναι δυνατό να αναγνωρίσουμε τη δυστυχία και να νιώσουμε έλεος για τους δυστυχισμένους (25). Η υπερφυσική αυτή αγάπη είναι ο Σταυρός του Χριστού: «ο Σταυρός είναι η πατρίδα μας». Το βλέμμα της Βέιλ έμεινε σταθερά προσηλωμένο στον Σταυρό. Ο Σταυρός του Χριστού της ασκούσε μια κυριολεκτικά θανάσιμη έλξη, και δεν μπόρεσε ποτέ να δει την Ανάσταση ως την υπέρτατη έκφραση της αγάπης του Θεού, μιας αγάπης που νικάει και τον ίδιο τον θάνατο.
Θα παραθέσω ακόμη ένα εκτενές απόσπασμα, σπάνιας πνευματικής και εκφραστικής δύναμης, από το ίδιο κείμενο:
Ο Χριστός αναγνωρίζει ως δικούς του εργάτες του καλού μόνο εκείνους που το έλεός τους στηρίζεται πάνω στη γνώση της δυστυχίας. Οι άλλοι δίνουν από καπρίτσιο, άτακτα ή, αντίθετα, υπερβολικά τακτικά, ως αποτέλεσμα είτε συνηθειών διαμορφωμένων από την εκπαίδευση είτε συμμόρφωσης στις κοινωνικές συμβάσεις είτε αλαζονείας είτε συμπόνιας σαρκικής είτε επιθυμίας για ήσυχη συνείδηση, με ένα λόγο, με κίνητρο που αφορά τους ίδιους. Είναι υπερόπτες ή παίρνουν ένα ύφος προστατευτικό ή εκφράζουν μια αδιάκριτη συμπόνια ή αφήνουν να νιώσει ο δυστυχισμένος ότι αποτελεί για αυτούς παράδειγμα ενός ορισμένου είδους δυστυχίας. Όπως και να ’ναι το δόσιμό τους πληγώνει. Και παίρνουν τον μισθό τους εδώ κάτω, γιατί δεν αγνοεί το δεξί τους χέρι τι κάνει το αριστερό. Η επαφή τους με τους δυστυχισμένους συντελείται μέσα στο ψέμα, γιατί η αληθινή γνώση των δυστυχισμένων εμπεριέχει τη γνώση της δυστυχίας. Όσοι δεν έχουν ατενίσει το πρόσωπο της δυστυχίας ή δεν είναι έτοιμοι να το κάνουν δεν μπορούν να πλησιάσουν τους δυστυχισμένους παρά μόνο προστατευμένοι από τον πέπλο του ψεύδους ή της αυταπάτης. Αν κατά τύχη φανερωθεί ξάφνου η δυστυχία πάνω στο πρόσωπο του δυστυχισμένου, το βάζουν στα πόδια.
Ο εργάτης του καλού που ο Χριστός αναγνωρίζει ως δικούς του, όταν βρίσκεται μπροστά σε έναν δυστυχισμένο, νιώθει ότι δεν υπάρχει καμιά απόσταση ανάμεσά τους• μεταφέρει στον άλλο όλη του την ύπαρξη• κατά συνέπεια η κίνηση να φέρει στον άλλον να φάει είναι τόσο ενστικτώδης, τόσο άμεση, όσο και το να φάει ο ίδιος όταν πεινάει. Και ξεχνιέται αμέσως, όπως ξεχνιούνται τα γεύματα των προηγούμενων ημερών. Σε ένα τέτοιον άνθρωπο θα ήταν αδιανόητο να πει ότι ασχολείται με τους δυστυχισμένους για τον Κύριο• θα του φαινόταν τόσο παράλογο όσο και το να πεί ότι τρώει για τον Κύριο. Τρώμε επειδή δεν μπορούμε να κρατήσουμε την πείνα μας. Αυτοί που ο Χριστός θα ευχαριστήσει δίνουν όπως τρώνε.
Πόσο ξένη είναι στην Βέιλ η ιδέα των δικαιωμάτων! Εκείνη μιλάει για την υπερφυσική χάρη της αγάπης που θα μας οδηγήσει να αναγνωρίσουμε τη δυστυχία και να αγαπήσουμε τους δυστυχισμένους, και οι άλλοι μιλάνε για νομικά πλαίσια, διαπραγματεύσεις και εντέλει για τη δύναμη. Άλλος κόσμος! Στη μακρά ιστορία της κριτικής στην ιδέα των ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων, από τον Μπερκ (Edmund Burke) μέχρι σήμερα, η Βέιλ κατέχει μια παράδοξα μοναδική θέση: το πρίσμα υπό το οποίο τα κρίνει και τα απορρίπτει είναι η υπερφυσική αγάπη για τους κατατρεγμένους.
Δεν είναι όμως μόνο η αταλάντευτη δέσμευση υπέρ των δυστυχισμένων εκείνο που οδηγεί τη Βέιλ σε αυτή την πολεμική κατά του προσώπου. Είναι και η μυστική εμπειρία της. Χρειάζεται επομένως ένα ακόμη βήμα –το τελευταίο- για την κατανόηση αυτού του δύσκολου κειμένου, χρειάζεται δηλαδή να φωτίσουμε τη μυστική διάστασή του. Δεν αποτελεί κανενός είδους contadictio in terminis να θεωρούμε τη Βέιλ, κατά τη δεύτερη περίοδο της ζωής και του έργου της, αξεχώριστα, μυστική φιλόσοφο. Διατηρεί μέχρι τέλους τη διανοητική απαιτητικότητα του φιλοσόφου και εμπνέεται ταυτόχρονα, στη σκέψη και στη δράση της, από μυστικές εμπειρίες και ενοράσεις. Συχνά συγχέουμε τον μυστικισμό με τον αναχωρητισμό και τον ασκητισμό. Διασταυρώνονται αλλά διόλου δεν ταυτίζονται. Πολλοί μεγάλοι αναχωρητές και ασκητές δεν ήταν μυστικοί, και αντίστροφα πολλοί μυστικοί δεν ήταν αναχωρητές.
Οι μυστικοί όλων των αιώνων, σε όποια θρησκεία και αν ανήκουν, παρουσιάζουν μεγάλες ομοιότητες. Επί παραδείγματι, αντιμετωπίζουν όλοι αρνητικά την ατομικότητα, το εγώ, το προσωπικό θέλημα. Η ψυχή πρέπει να αδειάσει από όλα τα ατομικά στοιχεία, να κενωθεί, για να έρθει να κατοικήσει εκεί ο Θεός, η Αλήθεια. Το βάθος αυτής της άδειας ψυχής γίνεται ο τόπος όπου θα ενθρονιστεί η Αλήθεια. Ο Μάιστερ Έκαρτ, ένας από τους αγαπημένους μυστικούς της Βέιλ, με αυτόν τον τρόπο ερμηνεύει το περιστατικό της βίαιης εκβολής των εμπόρων από τον Ναό. Ο ναός της ψυχής πρέπει να αδειάσει από όλα για να αντηχεί εκεί μόνο η απρόσωπη φωνή της Αλήθειας.
Τη μυστική πηγή της προσέγγισής της στο Πρόσωπο και το ιερό η Βέιλ θα την αποκαλύψει η ίδια:
Η τελειότητα είναι απρόσωπη. Το πρόσωπο στον άνθρωπο είναι το μέρος που κατέχει μέσα μας το λάθος και η αμαρτία. Όλη η προσπάθεια των μυστικών στόχευε πάντα να μην απομείνει στην ψυχή τους κανένα μέρος της που να λέει «εγώ». (σ. 9)
Χωρίς αυτή τη σταθερή μυστική εχθρότητα προς το εγώ, προς το προχωπικό θέλημα, το κείμενο της Βέιλ θα εξακολουθεί να μένει ακατανόητο.
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Η Σιμόν Βέιλ έστησε στην περιοχή της σκέψης τη δική της καλύβα. Σκέφτηκε την ανθρώπινη συνθήκη με τρόπο ακραίο, απόλυτο και ασυμβίβαστο. Και κυρίως αταξινόμητο. Δεν ανήκει σε κανένα ρεύμα, ομάδα ή σχολή. Η δική της καλύβα δεν μοιάζει με καμιά άλλη. Όποιος ωστόσο θελήσει να ακολουθήσει τη σκέψη της Βέιλ στην ολότητά της και σε όλες τις απαιτήσεις της δεν θα μπορέσει να ζήσει τούτη τη ζωή, μέσα στην κοινωνία, όπως δεν μπόρεσε να την ζήσει ούτε η ίδια, και έφυγε στα τριάντα τέσσερα χρόνια της. Τη χρονιά του θανάτου της έγραφε:
Η υπέρτατη επιλογή για κάθε ψυχή είναι ίσως η επιλογή μεταξύ αλήθειας και ζωής. Όποιος θέλει να διατηρήσει τη ζωή του, θα τη χάσει.
Αν βάλεις πάνω από όλα την αλήθεια και αν θέλεις να μείνεις πιστός σε αυτήν, θα αναγκαστείς κάποια στιγμή να χάσεις τη ζωή σου, με τον ένα ή τον άλλο τρόπο. Εκείνη διάλεξε τον δικό της. Η Βέιλ δεν αποτελεί βεβαίως το μόνο σχετικό παράδειγμα. Το ίδιο ισχύει, αίφνης, και με τον μεγάλο πνευματικό πρόγονό της, τον Πασκάλ, και ας του άσκησε κριτική, και με πλήθος άλλους. Το ίδιο μήπως δεν ισχύει και για το Ευαγγέλιο; Πόσοι χριστιανοί έζησαν τη ζωή τους, τηρώντας την ευαγγελική εντολή της αγάπης προς τους εχθρούς;
Τότε όμως ποιος είναι ο λόγος να την διαβάζουμε; Τι μας χρειάζεται; Και πιο συγκεκριμένα: όποιος διαβάσει το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό πρέπει ευθύς μετά να πάψει να μιλάει για το πρόσωπο; Ασφαλώς όχι. Η λέξη και η έννοια του προσώπου υπήρχε πριν από τον περσοναλισμό και εξακολουθεί να υπάρχει και μετά από αυτόν. Είναι πολύ ανθεκτική, όπως δείχνει και η σύγχρονη Ορθόδοξη θεολογία. Ο Ρικαίρ, συμπυκνώνοντας τη σκέψη του για το πρόσωπο και τον περσοναλισμό, έγραψε εύστοχα:
Πεθαίνει ο περσοναλισμός, επιστρέφει το πρόσωπο (θα μπορούσα και να πω ας πεθάνει ο περσοναλισμός, υπονοώντας: να πεθάνει, ακόμη και αν ... • είναι καλύτερα ίσως να πεθάνει, για να ...).
Πρέπει μήπως να πάψουμε να μιλάμε και να υπερασπιζόμαστε τα ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα; Προς Θεού! Θα εξακολουθήσουμε λοιπόν, και αφού έχουμε διαβάσει τούτο το μικρό βιβλίο, να κάνουμε λόγο για το πρόσωπο, χωρίς πάντως να αποφεύγουμε ούτε, πολύ περισσότερο, να δαιμονοποιούμε τη λέξη άτομο και ατομικότητα, και θα εξακολουθήσουμε να αγωνιζόμαστε για τα ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα. Το ερώτημα επομένως παραμένει: Για ποιο λόγο μεταφράζουμε τούτο το κείμενο της Βέιλ και το προτείνουμε με θέρμη; Ο λόγος είναι, θα απαντούσα στο ερώτημα που είναι και δικό μου, ότι η ακραία σκέψη της Βέιλ θέτει υπό δοκιμασία τη δική μας σκέψη, τις βεβαιότητες και τις ασφάλειές μας, αποκαλύπτει τις βολές, τις συμβατικότητες και τα ψέματά μας. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, όταν έχουμε να κάνουμε με τα εκατομμύρια ανθρώπους που δεν είναι κύριοι της ζωής τους και της μοίρας τους, τότε, έχοντας υπ’ όψιν τη Βέιλ, δεν θα μας είναι εύκολο να ρητορεύουμε ανέξοδα περί των απαράγραπτων ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων, και ίσως –λέω ίσως- προσπαθήσουμε να ακούσουμε τον αλάληλο στεναγμό τους, τη βουβή διαμαρτυρία τους. Διαφορετικά γινόμαστε αναίσθητοι και αναιδείς. Να μιλάς στον άνθρωπο που ψάχνει στα σκουπίδια να βρει κάτι να φάει για το ιερό δικαίωμά του να επιλέγει την εργασία του σημαίνει ότι σου λείπει η αιδώς. Ποιο είναι το πρόσωπο και τα δικαιώματα των κρατουμένων στο Άουσβιτς ή στο Γκουλάγκ; Τι νόημα έχει το δικαίωμα στην ελεύθερη ανάπτυξη της προσωπικότητας για τα εκατομμύρια ανθρώπων που πάσχουν από αλτσχάιμερ; Σε όλες αυτές τις περιπτώσεις και σε πλήθος άλλες, χρειάζεται εκείνη η προσοχή, για την οποία μιλάει η Βέιλ, που δεν είναι κάτι διαφορετικό από την αγάπη, για να μπορέσεις να ακούσεις έναν μικρό απόηχο από την βουβή κραυγή τους. Η σκέψη της Βέιλ, όπως και πολλών άλλων προφητών, μυστικών, δασκάλων, στοχαστών, ποιητών, είναι μια σκέψη του αδύνατου, εξ ορισμού δηλαδή μη εφαρμόσιμη. Όσα είπαν και έγραψαν δεν τα εφάρμοσε ποτέ κανείς στη ολότητά τους, κανείς δεν τα ακολούθησε μεχρι την άκρα συνέπεά τους. Χωρίς αυτούς όμως, αν μείνουμε δηλαδή μόνο στα όρια του νόμου, τότε ο δρόμος προς την απανθρωπιά είναι ορθάνοιχτος και μάλιστα με ήσυχη συνείδηση. Η φωνή τους είναι μια φωνή ανακλητική. Εκεί που ζούμε αμέριμνοι, στην κανονικότητα της αδιαφορίας μας για τους πάσχοντες, εκπληρώνοντας μόνο όσα επιβάλλει ο νόμος, η φωνή της Βέιλ μας ανακαλεί στην ανθρωπιά μας. Μας ανακαλεί δηλαδή στη μωρία της αγάπης. Στα Écrits de Londres, το κείμενο που ακολουθεί το Πρόσωπο και το ιερό τιτλοφορείται ερωτηματικά «Luttons-nous pour la justice?» («Αγωνιζόμαστε για τη δικαιοσύνη;»), όπου ο λόγος -ο ύμνος, καλύτερα- είναι περισσότερο για τη αγάπη παρά για τη δικαιοσύνη. Παράδοξο; Καθόλου. Για τη Βέιλ, τα δύο αυτά δεν είναι απλώς αξεχώριστα, αλλά η αγάπη αποτελεί την προϋπόθεση και ταυτόχρονα την κορύφωση της δικαιοσύνης:
Στο βαθμό που, μια οποιαδήποτε στιγμή, βρίσκεται η μωρία της αγάπης [folie d’ amour] ανάμεσα στους ανθρώπους, στον ίδιο ακριβώς βαθμό, και όχι παραπάνω, υπάρχει δυνατότητα μιας αλλαγής προς την κατεύθυνση της δικαιοσύνης.
Δεν είναι εύκολο να αγωνίζεται κανείς για τη δικαιοσύνη, παραδέχεται και η Βέιλ. Δεν αρκεί απλώς να διαλέξει στρατόπεδο,
πρέπει επιπλέον να κατοικείται από το πνεύμα της δικαιοσύνης. Το πνεύμα της δικαιοσύνης είναι το ανώτερο και τελειότερο άνθος της μωρίας της αγάπης.
Μόνο όποιος αγαπάει μπορεί να πάρει τον δρόμο της δικαιοσύνης, χωρίς μίσος και βία. Σε μια τέτοια αγάπη μας καλεί και μας ανακαλεί διαρκώς η Σιμόν Βέιλ. Να ένας από τους λόγους που έχουμε ανάγκη την άβολη παρέα της, που χρειαζόμαστε την κλητική και ανακλητική φωνή της.
Translation - English Stavros Zoumboulakis
Appendix
The slaves’ unspoken cry and the foolishness of love
Simone Weil’s most important work in the last nine months of her life in London (14 December 1942 - 24 August 1943) was without doubt L'Enracinement. Alongside this great (by any standards) work, the ever-prolific Weil also wrote many smaller works, working incessantly, day andnight. The most important of these is, in my opinion, La personne et le sacré. The text was first included in a book in 1957 in the volume Écrits de Londres et dernières lettres (Writings from London and last letters) in the Espoir series of Gallimard Publications, which Camus had founded and run.It was probably the Weil family who gave the text its title, though it was not a random choice, as the manuscript itself included the heading "La personne humaine est-elle sacrée?" ("Is the human person sacred?"). In the place of a title, Weil had put a series of words, which in the 1957 edition were added as a subtitle: Collectivité - Personne - Impersonnel - Droit - Justice (Collectivity - Person - Impersonal - Rights - Justice).
The Person and the Sacred has not yet been published in the multi-volume edition ofWeil's Complete Works, also published by Gallimard, which began to appear in 1988 (Volume V. 1, in which it will be included, has not yet been released). Unfortunately the text was also left out of the publication Simon Weil, Oeuvres, by Quarto/Gallimard (1999), but in the last two years alone it has been published independently in Franceon three separate occasions!
The Person and the Sacredis a polemical text. It isdirected uncompromisingly against the idea of the person and especially against associating the human personwith the sacred. To be more precise, at the very beginning of the text Weil selects personalistic philosophy as the target of her polemic. In her criticism she states that the concept of the person it presents is hazy and confused. There is, however, no reference to Emmanuel Mounier or any mention of his work. Even if she had read him, it is certain that she had not read himwith attention. In any case this text is not an academic philosophical study, and the arguments about the use of language with which shechallenges personalism are not serious. Weil is concerned with other matters.ThePerson and the Sacred was not written without a stimulus. At that time a debatewas taking place in France about the idea of the person, of whichWeil was well aware. Florence de Lussy, one of the foremost authorities on her work, writes in her preface to an independent edition of ThePerson and the Sacred (see note 2), that in her opinion the text was a reaction to the lecture given by André Philip in New York (November 7, 1942), which Weil had attended, "Les fondements juridiques et moraux de la resistance française" (“The Legal and Ethical Foundations of the French Resistance”) . André Philip, who enrolledWeil in the Services of the Free French in London, spoke in his lecture of "the fundamental idea of the sacred character of the human person." Another text that we canwith some confidence assume that she had read is the excellent essay by Jean Lacroix, 1900-1986, "Personne, individu et communauté" ("Person, individual and community"). However, thoughWeil wasvery aware of the ongoing debate, she did not take a significant part in it. Yet from the first she was roused to oppose the idea of the person.
Weil too acknowledges that there is indeed something sacred in the human being, but this is not the person. The sacred in man is the impersonal and nothing else. The concept of the sacred forWeil does not pertain to the study of religion; the sacred is not what is set apart and forbidden, the numen or mysterium tremendum – what is sacred is the good. The only source of the sacred is the good. Within every human being is unrecognised, in the depth of his heart, the expectation of good. The sanctity of human beings is precisely in their desire not to suffer harm, the feeling of injury when they do and the expectation of good being done to them. In the long history of evil, the innumerable people who have been tormented by every sort of powerful person, the crushed andthe enslaved, have not always been able to express this desire and expectation. However, it always remains irreducibly alive: a silent groan, an unspoken protest. Echoing ceaselessly within them is the unspoken cry, "why do you do me harm?" But even those who can express the deep desire not to suffer harm, cannot express it coherently. Instead they stammer, like the little thief who has stolen carrots from a field to relieve his hungerand now stands before the silver-tongued judge,who, from the height of the bench, has the satisfaction of making witty jokes. The silent groan of the unjustly treated, their incoherent words, their unspoken cry of pained surprise when someone does them harm, none of these has any personal characteristics. It is this impersonal, silent protest against evil, inseparable from the unacknowledged expectation of the good, which is the sacred.
The intensity with which Weil attacks the idea of the person is surprising, sinceboth the word itself and the idea are above all partofChristian heritage. Christ is a person, and there are indeed countless references to, or invocations of, his personin every kind of Christian text. The Holy Trinity consists of three persons, and also every human being who participates in a Christian assembly or community is defined, already from the time of the New Testament, as a person (2 Cor 1:11). Weil knows this, but she has no difficulty in overlooking it. Furthermore, the personalismthat she attacks so uncompromisingly isitself a current of thought which is Christian in its inspiration. With the idea of the person, the personalists wished to distinguish themselves from both the extreme individualism of the liberals andthe collectivism of the Marxists. Indeed, the debate in France at that time raised two issues above all: firstly, the relationship between the person and the individual and, secondly, the relationship between the person and the community. In his Manifesto, Mounier proclaimed that a civilisation of the person is a response to all forms of individualism and, at the same time, to mass society. The individual is selfishness, narcissism, greed, scattering, while the person is generosity and concentration. Mass society is a sum of anonymous units, while the civilisation of the person guarantees the solidarity of the person and the community. The revolution – his own word - that Mounier passionately advocates is personalistic and thus communal. Is it not, therefore, indeed surprising, after all that we have noted above, that Weil should beso deeply antagonistic to the idea of the person? What is the reason for her fierce hostility?
The simple answer is that Weil considers that ‘person’ means privilege, social privilege (p. 22). The slave in the plantation with a chain on his leg, or another chained to the factory: these have no personhood. They are crushed bodies and souls, battered creatures. Only the privileged havea person. The rest have no personhood, and thus they have no voice. They suffer in silence. At best they stammer incoherently. What person could the prisoners of Auschwitz or the Gulag prisoners have? The wretched of the earth have neither person nor talent. Talent is not a natural grace, it is a social privilege. Only the privileged have talent. Throughout her life, Weil chose to be with those who had no person, with the persecuted, seeking to identify with them, listen to and communicate their silent protest. She knew well, this graduate of the École Normale Supérieure of the rue d'Ulm, that she was not one of them, that socially her destiny had placed her on the other side, and she did all she could in order not to live as one of the privileged. This was for her a cause of intolerable inner division and pain, which she solved with her essentially voluntary exit from life. For Weil, it is an affront to talk to these people about personhood and the free development of personality; it means only that you are incapable of hearing them. In order to be able to hear their inaudible voice or their incoherent stammering requires an environment of silence and a kind of attention that is no different from pure love (pp. 5-6).
Weil's polemic against the person does not lead her to a defence of "we", of the community, of collectivity. On the contrary, for Weil, collectivity has since old been a factor in the subjugation of the human being. In her first major work, Réflexions sur les causes de la liberté et de l 'oppression sociale (1934), she vehemently attacks the collectivity that designates people as its pawns. Her own ideal is something different: "a society where the life of the collectivity is subjugated to people understood as individuals rather thanit subjugating them". In this belief, Weilremained steadfast. The part of the soul that says "we" is infinitely more dangerous than the part of it that says "I" (p. 9). The attribution of sacred character to the collectivity is neither more nor less than idolatry, the greatest crime of every age and place (p.10). There is only one way for man to escape from the crushing power of collectivity:
to rise above the personalin order to penetrate the impersonal. At that moment there is something inside him, a small piece of his soul, over which nothing collective can exercise influence. If one can take root in the impersonal good [...], then one is able [...] to direct a small but certainly real power against any collective, without relying on another collective. (pp. 11-12)
To be sure, Weil's polemic against the idea of the person is closely associated with her criticism of human rights. It is one and the same. With her penetrating insightWeil has rightly understood, without resorting to exhaustive historical studies, that the emergence of the idea of human rights and the universal dignity of man is the result of the gradual sanctification of the person. Human rights and the sanctity of the human person are inseparable. The idea and institutionalisation of human rights has its origin in the 18th century: they are the fruit of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, while the Catholic Church, the guardian of the idea that man is the image of God, took a stand against them. The Church, in short, was afraid, not without justification, that human rights, as the Enlightenment and the French Revolution preached them, would take the place of God's rights, that man would dethrone God. In fact it was not until the Second Vatican CouncilandPopes John XXIII and Paul VIthat the Catholic Church finally accepted human rights, integrated them into itsteaching, and eventook the lead in their defence throughout the world. However, even before this official recognition, a group of Christian thinkers in the twentieth century would claim the Gospel itself as the source of rights. Indeed they attempted not simply to reconcile Christianity with democracy, but to present the teaching of the Gospel as the main foundation of democracy. Foremost among these was Jacques Maritain. However this project not only failed to convinceor move Weil, but actually filled herwith indignation. Maritain and his book Les droits de l'homme et la loi naturelle became the object of her hostility. The book was published in New York in 1942, and Weil read it and referred to itcritically in The Need for Roots. In this book, where Maritain defended the person, both against the individual and against a society that devours persons, there is much that would have offended Weil as she read it, such as everything its author wrote about the freedom of the person and his development (épanouissement) or the right of each to govern and define his own life. What does all this have to do with the afflicted? she would have thought angrily. Maritain is also the object ofWeil’s criticism in The Person and the Sacred, even though he is not named (as Mounier is also not named). Maritain’s book is here taken to taskalmostpoint by point.The French Catholic believes, in this particular book as in his other works, that the only possible foundation of universal human rights cannot be anything other than natural law. For Maritain, in complete contrast to Weil,
The concept of rights is even deeper than that of moral obligation, because God has a sovereign right over creatures and has no moral obligation to them (even if he owes it himself to provide them with what is required by their very nature).
For Maritain, the person has rights deriving from the mere fact that he is a person and ultimately a creation of God.
Every right that man possesses he does so by virtue of the right possessed by God - who is pure Justice - to see in beings the order of his wisdom respected, to be obeyed and loved by all of the intellect.
Human rights, according to Maritain, are not an inheritance left to us from the 18th century and the Enlightenment; rather they are a legacy of classical thought and the Gospel. From classical antiquity, Maritain (as many others did) pointed to the figure of Antigone, the "eternal heroine of natural law, which the Ancients called unwritten law [the author emphasises], a name that suits it best." In complete contrast, Weil, who herself identified with Antigone, stated:
It is unparalleledconfusion to identify Antigone's unwritten law with the natural law. (p. 19)
When the little fool tells the rational Creon "I was not born to hate, but to love," he tells her to go, in that case, and live in the other world, together with her loved ones.Weil comments:
That was indeed her true position. Because the unwritten law which this girl obeyed, and which had absolutely nothing in common with any right, or anything natural, did not differ in any way from the extreme, irrational love that led Christ to the Cross. (p.20)
At this point allow me to make a short digression. Weil is mistaken in identifying Antigone's ‘συμφιλείν’ with the love of Christ. Although she knew ancient Greek, she did not,like so many others, give as much attention to the prefix of the verb (as well as of ‘συνεχθείν’, which preceded it) as she should have. The love for which Antigone declares she was born is not directed to all, but only to her own kin, her brothers, who were born of the same womb. Nonetheless, with the example of Antigone and Christ,Weilis simply saying that rights have nothing to do with love- can one imagine St Francis of Assisi speaking of rights? (p. 20) - and that Justice, the companion of the gods of the underworld, is to be identified with love.Weil believes that Maritain, in all that he writes about man being the master of his own life, lowers rights to a place even lower than that of claims, he degrades them to the level of desire (p. 22).
Weil opposes the idea of human rights, because rights have a real existence only when there is someone able to recognise them; in other words they are a matter of negotiation, transaction and deal-making (p. 17). Consequentlythey are infused with commercial and quantitative logic. Furthermore, rights are ultimately a matter of power, a correlation of forces, andonly exist when those who claim them have the power to impose them on those who deny or challenge them. "Rights by their own nature are dependent on force" (p. 18), they are found "just above naked force" (p.17). Rights are characterised by opposition (p. 21), they have nothing to do with love (p.20). Force gives rise to force, violence toviolence, inan endless vicious circle. Rights therefore never lead to an exit from this cycle of blood; instead they form part of it.
At a time when Europe was fighting against Nazi barbarity, the reader could well wonder why Weil was taken up with a war against human rights. Indeed it demands an explanation. Weilwas in London, working on behalf of the Free French of General de Gaulle (she resigned on 26 July 1943). She wantedits leadership to send herinto occupied France on a secret mission, but they never did so, concerned for her safety andthe safety of those who mightwork with her. Instead of being parachuted into France, she wrote texts (to which nobody paid much attention) for the Free French Interior Ministry (Commissariat National à l'Intérieur et au Travaille). At that time a new declaration of human rights for the post-war world needed to be prepared. Thus at this particular time, as part of her official duties,Weil addressed the question of rights. She worked feverishly, but the fruit of this work was not what was expected of her, but rather The prelude towards a declaration of duties towards mankind /Prélude à une déclaration des devoirs envers l'être humain, the work that became world-famous as The Need for Roots, a comprehensive proposal for a new civilisation, in which the work of justice is assigned to love.
ThePerson and the Sacred, despite what we have said so far, still keeps its secret well guarded. To understand Weil's polemic against the person and his rights, we need to take another step. We must understand the notion of affliction (malheur), as Weil conceived of it, especially during the second period of her life and work, that is to say, when she wasseized by Christ ("Christ Himself descendedand took possession of me”. Weil began to think about social issues from the perspective of affliction (p. 24). Affliction, which is something other than pain (douleur) and suffering (souffrance), became the starting point for social and political thought. A year before ThePerson and the Sacred, a few days before leaving Marseilles for New York, Weil wrote in one sitting(and sent to Fr Perrin) the disturbing and very difficult text of L'amour de Dieu et le malheur (The Love of God and Affliction).
Affliction, the only real enigma, is an uprooting from life, almost equivalent to death. Affliction seizes the soul, cuts into it, brands it with a burning iron. What causes affliction is the blind mechanism of necessity.
If the mechanism were not blind, there would be no affliction. Affliction is above all anonymous, depriving those whomit overwhelmsof their personality and turns them into objects. It is indifferent, and the cold of this indifference, a metallic cold, freezes those it touches to the depths of their soul. They will never again regain warmth. They will never again believe that they are someone.
Affliction strikes man in all three dimensions: in the body (with pain), in the soul (with despair), and in his social position (with ruin and scorn). The afflicted one, depending on the circumstances and the wheel of fate, is "the refugee, the Negro, the sick man, the hardened convict, and all like them". Let me note here that when evil is not caused by man to man, but by the blind power of nature, incurable illness, madness, epidemic, then the unspoken cry is not "why are they doing me harm?", such as when evil is caused by man, the unjust and mighty, but "why is harm being done to me?" "why should I suffer?" If in the case of the first cry ("why are they doing me harm?") there is a chance that someone will hear it, who will hear the second?
Affliction, as the destruction of man’s personality, leads to the passing overinto anonymity. The afflicted individual is emptied of himself, he is vacated. "As Christ emptied himself of his divinity because of love, the afflicted person is emptied of his humanity because of his misfortune." Affliction is repugnant and ridiculous, which is why all people despise the afflicted, turn away from them, are unable to share their pain. All, that is, except those whose soul has become the dwelling-place of Christ. Pity for the afflicted is the result of a miracle, the miracle of miracles. Andprecisely because affliction is weakness, it can be salutary; it can turn our gaze to the Cross of Christ. "Affliction without the Cross is hell, and God did not put hell on earth." We must therefore love, not the affliction itself, but the possibility of affliction, which is shared by all at any moment, precisely because it can lead man to approach the mystery of God's love.
They often complain of Christianity that it is morbidly indulgent of suffering, of pain. This is a mistake. Christianity is not about pain and suffering, for these are feelings, psychologicalstates, where it is always possible to look for a perverted pleasure. In fact it is something quite different. It is affliction. Affliction is not a spiritual state. It is the pulverisation of the soul from the mechanicalbrutality of circumstances. The transformation of a man in his own eyes from the human condition into the state of a worm, which trembles half-dissolved in the ground, is an event that not even a perverse person can accept. The wise man, the hero,thesaint – none of these can accept it. Affliction is what is imposed ona human being completely against his will. Its essence and definition is that horror, that rebellion of the entire existence of manthat has been overwhelmed by it. That is exactly what we have to give our consent to, thanks to supernatural love.
It is not possible to know affliction naturally, for it requires a kind of supernatural favour. Without supernatural love, it is impossible to recognise affliction and to feel pity for the afflicted (25). This supernatural love is the Cross of Christ: "The Cross is our homeland." Weil's gaze remained firmly on the Cross. The Cross of Christ exerted on her a literally mortal attraction, and she could never see the Resurrection as the supreme expression of God's love, a love that defeats death itself.
I will quote yet another excerpt, of rare spiritual and expressive power, from the same text:
Christ recognises as his own workers for the good only those whose mercy is founded on the knowledge of affliction. The others only give on a whim,erratically, or elsethey give with exaggerated regularity, as a result of either habits inculcated by their education or out of conformity with social conventions, or arrogance or sympathy for the body rather than the spirit, or the desire to have an easy conscience, motivated by reasons that relate only to themselves. They are haughty or adopt a protective manner or express an indiscriminate compassion or make the afflicted person feel that they are no more than representatives of a certain kind of affliction. Whatever form their giving takes, it wounds. And they take their reward in this world because their right hand knows only too well what their left hand is doing. Their contact with the afflicted ends in a lie, for true knowledge of the afflicted requires knowledge of affliction. Those who have not looked at the face of affliction or are not ready to do so are only able to approach the afflicted person when protected by a veil of falsehood or self-deception. If by chance affliction is suddenly revealed on the face of the afflicted, they turn tail and run.
When the workerfor the good that Christ recognises as one of his own is in the presence of an afflicted person, he feels that there is no distance between them –hetransfers to the other their whole being - consequently the movement to feed the other is as instinctive and immediate as feedinghimself when he ishungry. And it is immediately forgotten, just as the meals of previous days are forgotten. It would be meaningless to tell such a person that he was dealing with the afflicted for the Lord’s sake. It would seem as absurd to him as to say he was eating for the Lord’s sake. We eat because we cannot contain our hunger. Those who receive Christ’s gratitude are those who give in the same way that they eat.
How alien was the idea of rights to Weil! She speaks of the supernatural grace of a love that leads us to recogniseaffliction and love the afflicted, while others speak of legal frameworks, negotiations, and ultimatelyabout power. It is indeed another world. In the long history of criticism of the idea of human rights, from Edmund Burke to the present day, Weil has a paradoxically unique position: the prism through which she judges and rejects them is the supernatural love of the persecuted.
However it is not only her unwavering commitment on behalf of the afflicted that leads Weil to the stance she takes against the person. It is her mystical experience. There is, therefore, another step - the last one –that we need to take in order to understand this difficult text:we need to shine light on its mystical aspect. It is not a matter of contradictio in terminis to consider Weil, in the second period of her life and work, as being, inseparably,a mystical philosopher.Up until the end she maintained the philosopher's intellectual rigour;at the same time she was inspired in her thoughts and actions by mystical experiences andintuitions.
We often confuse mysticism with the way of the hermit and ascetic. They may converge, but they are by no means the same. Many great hermits and ascetics were not mystics, and likewise many mystics were not hermits.The mystics of all ages, whatever religion they belong to, display many similarities. For example, they all view individuality, ego, and personal will as something negative. The soul has to be emptied of all the individual elements, to be vacated, so that God, the Truth, will come to dwell there. The ground of this emptied soul becomes the place where Truth will be enthroned. It is thus that Meister Eckhart, one of Weil's favourite mystics, interprets the story of Christ’s violent expulsion of the merchants from the Temple. The temple of the soul must be emptied of everything, to echo only the impersonal voice of Truth.
Weil herself revealed the mystical source of her approach in The Person and the Sacred:
Perfection is impersonal. The person in man is the place in us that contains error and sin. All the efforts of the mystics havealways aimed to keep in their soul no part of itwhichsays "I". (p.9)
Without this steadfast mystical hostility to the ego, to personal will, Weil's text remains unintelligible.
* * *
Simon Weil erected her own tent in the territory of ideas. Her way of reflecting onthe human condition was extreme, absolute, and uncompromising, and, above all, unclassifiable. She does not belong to any stream, group or school. Her own tent does not resemble any other. Anyone who wishes to followWeil’s thought in its entirety, accepting all of its demands, willnot be able to live in the world, as she could not live it herself. She departed at the age of thirty-four. In the year of her death she wrote:
The ultimate choice for every soul is perhaps the choice between truth and life. Anyone who wants to keep his life will lose it.
If you put the truth above all, and if you want to be faithful to it, you will, at some point, have to lose your life, in one way or another. She chose her own way. Weil is certainly not the only example. The same is also true, clearly, of her great spiritual ancestor, Pascal (even though he was also the object of her criticism) as well as many others. Is it not also true of the Gospel? How many Christians have lived their lives respecting the Gospel’s command of love for one’s enemies?
But in that case what is the reason to read her? What do we need it for? More specifically: does anyone who reads The Person and the Sacredneed immediately to cease talking about the person? Of course not. The word and meaning of theperson existed before personalism, and it continues to exist after it. It is very resilient, as modern Orthodox theology also shows. Paul Ricoeur, in summarising his thought on the person and personalism, wrote aptly:
Personalism has died, the person has returned (I could perhaps say ‘let personalism die’, meaning: ‘let it die, even if’ ... ‘it is perhaps better if it dies, in order to ...’).
Perhaps we should stop talking about and defending human rights? By no means! We will continue, even after reading this little book, to speak of the person, without, of course, avoiding, let alone demonising, the words individual and individuality. We will maintain the struggle for human rights. The question therefore remains: why should we enthusiastically recommend this text by Weil?In reply to this question, which I also put to myself, I would say that that Weil's extreme thought puts our own thinking, our certainties and our convictions to the test, revealing our complacency, compromises and deceptions. More specifically, when we consider the millions of people who are not masters of their own lives and their fate, then, taking Weil into consideration, it will not be so easy to speak glibly about inalienable human rights, and perhaps – I say perhaps –we will try to listen to their voiceless groan, their silent protest. Otherwise we become insensitive and shameless. Talking to the man who is looking in the garbage to find something to eat about his sacred right to choose his work means that you have no sense of shame. What was the personhood or the rights of the detainee in Auschwitz or the Gulag? What is the meaning of the right to free personality development for the millions of people suffering from Alzheimer's? In all these cases and in many others, what is in fact required is the attention thatWeil speaks of, which is no different from love, so that you are able at least to hear a faint echo of their silent cry.
The thought of Weil, likethat of many other prophets, mystics, teachers, thinkers and poets, is the thought of the impossible, and thus by definition of the unrealisable. No one has ever realised in its entirety what they have written and said, no one has followed it to its ultimate implications. But without them, if we stay only within the limits of the law, then the path to inhumanity is wide-open and even permits an easy conscience. Their voice is a recalling voice. Where we live heedlessly, in our customary indifference to the suffering of others, fulfilling only what the law requires, Weil's voice recalls us to our humanity. It brings us back to the foolishness of love. In the Écrits de Londres, the text that followsThe Person and the Sacred is entitled "Luttons-nous pour la justice?" (“Do we struggle for justice?”), where the argument – or rather the hymn - is more about love than justice. A paradox? Not at all. For Weil, these two are not just inseparable, but love is both the prerequisite and simultaneously the climax of justice:
To the extent that, at any moment, the foolishness of love (folie d'amour) exists between people, to the same extent, and not more, there is the possibility of a change in the direction of justice.
It is not easy to fight for justice, she admits. It is not enough just to choose a side,
onemust also be inhabited by the spirit of justice. The spirit of righteousness is the supreme and most perfect flower of the foolishness of love.
Only one who loves can follow the path of justice without hatred and violence. It is to such a love that Simone Weil ceaselessly calls us again and again. This is one of the reasons we need her uncomfortable company; we needher calling and recalling voice.
Dutch to English: Report on unit-linked life insurance Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets General field: Bus/Financial Detailed field: Insurance
Source text - Dutch Generieke rapportage
Rapport Beleggingsverzekeringen
Autoriteit Financiële Markten
Autoriteit Financiële Markten
2
De Autoriteit Financiële Markten (AFM) is toezichthouder op het gedrag van en de informatieverstrekking door alle partijen op de financiële markten in Nederland, dat wil zeggen op de markten van sparen, lenen, beleggen en verzekeren.
Het statutaire doel van de AFM is “het bevorderen op de financiële markten van een ordelijk en transparant marktproces, een zuivere verhouding tussen marktpartijen en de bescherming van de consument”.
De AFM ziet er op toe dat partijen zich aan de relevante wetten en regels houden.
Ook adviseert de AFM het ministerie van Financiën bij het ontwikkelen van nieuwe wetten en regels met betrekking tot het gedragstoezicht op de financiële markten.
De AFM kan ook, binnen de door het ministerie gestelde grenzen, zelf regels ontwikkelen.
De operationele doelstellingen van de AFM zijn:
het bevorderen van de toegang tot de markt;
het bevorderen van de goede werking van de markt;
het borgen van het vertrouwen in de markt.
Deze doelstellingen dienen niet alleen het belang van afnemers van financiële diensten en producten, maar ook dat van de economie als geheel.
Zowel het publiek, het bedrijfsleven als de overheid zijn voor veel activiteiten afhankelijk van de financiële producten die op de markten worden aangeboden.
Vertrouwen in de ordelijke en eerlijke werking van die markten is hierbij cruciaal.
Daarom is goed toezicht van groot belang.
Bij de uitvoering van de doelstellingen laat de AFM zich leiden door begrippen als integriteit, transparantie, adequate informatieverstrekking en gelijkwaardigheid.
De financiële wereld is omvangrijk.
Daarom zijn veel activiteiten van de AFM gericht op normoverdracht, dat wil zeggen het bevorderen dat bedrijven en burgers meer begrip hebben voor de regels en zich er daarom uit overtuiging aan houden.
De AFM bevordert normoverdracht door onder meer voorlichting te geven over nieuwe regels, interpre- taties en algemene waarnemingen.
De AFM vraagt financiële instellingen zelf een evaluatie te maken of ze voldoende bijdragen aan de toezichtdoelstellingen.
Controles kunnen daardoor systematisch worden uitgevoerd: namelijk daar waar de risico’s het grootst zijn.
De uitvoering van het toezicht door de AFM is gebaseerd op vier principes: kraakhelder de feiten kennen, aan de hand van deze feiten juridisch en economisch juiste analysen maken, zorgvuldig en evenwichtig beslissen op basis van de feiten en analysen, en scherp reageren als het erop aan komt.
Waar de markt kan en wil bijdragen aan het toezicht, moet de markt actief deze mogelijkheid nemen.
Dit heet zelfregulering of zelftoezicht.
Er is behoefte aan toezicht als alle partijen vaststellen dat de markt zelf – dat wil zeggen dus zonder toezicht – onvoldoende bijdraagt aan de doelstellingen vertrouwen, toegang en goede werking.
Voor die onderdelen van de financiële markt waar regulering en toezicht nodig zijn, wordt de vraag gesteld in welke mate marktpartijen zelf een deel of het gehele toezicht kunnen uitvoeren en in welke mate een externe toezichthouder nodig is.
Rapport Beleggingsverzekeringen
Hoofdstukindeling
Samenvatting en conclusies 5
Inleiding 8
Beleggingsverzekeringen in het algemeen 10
Bevindingen instellingen 12
Inleiding 12
Uitkomst in de polisadministratie hoger dan offerte 12
Uitkomst offerte/financiële bijsluiter hoger dan in de polisadministratie 12
Tekortkomingen op tussentijdse overzichten 12
Overige verschillen 13
Wat hebben de betrokken instellingen gedaan?
14
Compenseren van klanten 14
Omvang compensatie 15
Informeren van klanten 15
Treffen van maatregelen 15
Oordeel AFM 16
Oordeel AFM over compenseren en informeren 16
Oordeel AFM over de houding en medewerking van de instellingen 18
Best practices 20
IT/rekenkern 20
Tussenpersonen en instellingen 21
AO/IC 23
Compliance 25
Actuariaat 26
Klachtenafhandeling 26
Wijziging uitgangspunten 27
Vervolgstappen 28
Bijlage 1:
Overzicht van de oorzaken van de verschillen 29
3
De AFM is een zelfstandig bestuursorgaan.
De bevoegdheden op het gebied van het gedragstoezicht op de financiële markten zijn door het ministerie van Financiën gedelegeerd aan de AFM.
Als zelfstandig bestuursorgaan draagt de AFM de verantwoordelijkheid voor de concrete uitoefening van haar toezicht.
De Raad van Toezicht van de AFM ziet toe op de wijze waarop het Bestuur zijn taken verricht.
De Minister van Financiën benoemt de voorzitter en leden van het Bestuur en de Raad van Toezicht, en keurt statutenwijzigingen en de jaarlijkse begroting goed.
Voor de omgang met de externe “stakeholders” heeft de AFM de stelregel dat de AFM luistert naar al haar belanghebbenden.
Zij heeft oor voor feitelijk onderbouwde argumenten.
Consultaties spelen een prominente rol in de dialoog met de marktpartijen.
De AFM heeft met collega-toezichthouder de Nederlandsche Bank (DNB) een convenant over de taakverdeling en de operationele samenwerking.
Daarnaast kent de AFM specifieke convenanten met organisaties in Nederland en Memoranda of Understanding met toezichthouders in het buitenland.
Op internationaal gebied zijn er diverse samen- werkingsverbanden en overlegorganen.
Hiervan zijn vooral het Comité van Europese Effectentoezichthouders (CESR) en de wereldwijde organisatie van effectentoezichthouders (IOSCO) van belang.
Samenvatting en conclusies
De Autoriteit Financiële Markten (“AFM”) heeft tussen juni 2005 en april 2006 een onderzoek verricht naar beleggingsverzekeringen bij een representatief deel van levensverzekeraars actief in Nederland.
Met dit onderzoek heeft de AFM gevolg gegeven aan berichten die in de zomer van 2005 (en daarna) in de media verschenen over tekortkomingen in de berekening van opbrengsten uit beleggingsverzekeringen.
Door deze tekortkomingen zijn klanten onjuist geïnformeerd over onder meer de geprognosticeerde opbrengsten.
Uit het onderzoek volgt dat bijna alle verzekeraars één of meer tekortkomingen hebben geconstateerd in de verstrekking van financiële informatie aan klanten.
De betrokken verzekeraars hebben allemaal goede medewerking verleend aan het onderzoek, onder meer door zelf intern in detail analyses te verrichten naar mogelijke verschillen.
Bovendien hebben alle betrokken verzekeraars waar nodig de geconstateerde tekortkomingen voor de klant op adequate wijze opgelost danwel zullen deze op korte termijn oplossen.
Het onderzoek van de AFM heeft betrekking op tekortkomingen in de verstrekking van financiële informatie in offertes, financiële bijsluiters of (beleggings)overzichten.
De AFM heeft de betrokken verzekeraars verzocht na te gaan of bij hen mogelijk sprake is van dergelijke tekortkomingen en de AFM te informeren over de (financiële) maatregelen die zijn of worden getroffen door de verzekeraars om eventuele tekortkomingen te herstellen.
De betrokken verzekeraars hebben dit gedaan door intern analyses te verrichten naar verschillende tekortkomingen zoals die zich kunnen voordoen.
De AFM heeft de analyses en de uitkomsten gereviewed.
Het adequaat informeren van afnemers van financiële producten is een belangrijke voorwaarde voor het goed functioneren van de financiële markten.
Enerzijds kan de financiële klant zijn verantwoordelijkheid pas nemen indien de verstrekte informatie adequaat is, anderzijds ondermijnt het verstrekken van onjuiste en/of onvolledige en/of misleidende informatie het vertrouwen in de financiële markten.
De vergelijkbaarheid van “juiste” offertes van verschillende aanbieders is voor klanten van groot belang en zorgt tevens voor een “level playing field” tussen verzekeraars.
Klanten krijgen door de tekortkomingen in de verstrekking van financiële informatie bij een aantal producten in de offertes en/of in de financiële bijsluiters hogere uitkomsten gepresenteerd dan wat zij werkelijk volgens de polisadministratie opbouwen.
Daarnaast hebben diverse verzekeraars geconstateerd dat klanten bij een aantal producten op de (jaarlijkse) beleggingsoverzichten hogere uitkomsten gepresenteerd krijgen dan wat zij werkelijk volgens de polisadministratie opbouwen.
5
De belangrijkste oorzaak van de verschillen is het hanteren van meerdere systemen en/of rekenkernen met verschillende uitgangspunten.
De kans op verschillen is groter bij het hanteren van verschillende rekenkernen dan bij het hanteren van één rekenkern en één administratief systeem voor zowel de polissen als de offertes/ financiële bijsluiters.
Het hanteren van meerdere systemen of rekenkernen kan leiden tot een suboptimale dienstverlening en een moeizame beheersing van bedrijfsrisico’s.
Andere oorzaken van verschillen zijn onder andere programmeerfouten, invoerfouten, rekentechnische verschillen en afrondingsverschillen.
Gegeven het belang van offertes en financiële bijsluiters is de AFM van oordeel dat offertes en/of financiële bijsluiters gestand moeten worden gedaan danwel dat de verzekeraars de klanten moeten compenseren, indien er verschillen zijn met de polisstand met nadelige materiële/financiële gevolgen voor de klanten.
Hoewel rekening gehouden moet worden met enkele onzekere elementen bedraagt de totale omvang van de compensatie (inclusief het financiële nadeel door het gestand doen van offertes) door de betrokken verzekeraars thans circa €160 miljoen.
Dit bedrag is gebaseerd op door de individuele verzekeraars verstrekte informatie over de omvang van de compensatie.
Overigens is de compensatie per individuele polis in de meeste gevallen van geringe omvang.
In enkele gevallen betreft de compensatie wel substantiële bedragen per polis.
De totale omvang van de compensatie kan daarnaast worden afgezet tegen de bruto-premieinleg per jaar bij individuele producten van €16 miljard, waarbij men zich dient te realiseren dat de gemiddelde looptijd van een product rond de 15 jaar ligt.
Niet gebleken is dat de verzekeraars bewust een misleidende voorstelling van zaken hebben gegeven in de offertes.
Diverse verzekeraars moeten nog interne maatregelen treffen om te zorgen dat de geconstateerde tekortkomingen worden opgelost en om te zorgen dat in de toekomst dergelijke tekortkomingen zich niet (meer) voordoen.
Hierbij moet bijvoorbeeld gedacht worden aan het gebruiken van één uniforme rekenkern voor alle berekeningen van offertes, financiële bijsluiters, beleggingsoverzichten en polissen.
Daarnaast is van belang dat een verzekeraar zorgt dat de tussenpersonen alleen maar gebruik kunnen maken van de actuele en juiste offertesoftware, die bij voorkeur via een extranetverbinding door de verzekeraar wordt verspreid.
Verzekeraars dienen ook te zorgen voor uitgebreide testprocedures waarmee ze, zowel bij aanvang van de verzekering als gedurende de looptijd van de verzekering, controleren of de (financiële) informatie uit de offertesoftware en polisadministratie en de daaruit gegenereerde informatieoverzichten op elkaar aansluiten.
De betrokken verzekeraars hebben de afgelopen jaren te maken gehad met diverse wijzigingen in wet- en regelgeving.
De verzekeraars hebben aangegeven dat zij moeite hebben gehad om alle nieuwe wet- en regelgeving tijdig en op de juiste wijze te implementeren.
De AFM beseft dat de implementatie van de diverse wijzigingen de nodige tijd en middelen van de verzekeraars vergt.
Gegeven het belang van juiste informatieverstrekking aan klanten, hecht de AFM er aan dat verzekeraars voldoende aandacht geven aan adequate informatieverstrekking.
Nu de betrokken verzekeraars hun interne analyses hebben afgerond en de AFM de opzet, uitvoering en uitkomsten daarvan heeft kunnen toetsen, gaat de AFM ervan uit dat er bij de in het onderzoek betrokken verzekeraars op het gebied van de verstrekking van financiële informatie over beleggingsverzekeringen thans geen andere tekortkomingen zijn.
Indien de betrokken verzekeraars in de toekomst desondanks tekortkomingen ontdekken, gaat de AFM ervan uit dat deze op adequate wijze worden opgelost.
De AFM gaat er voorts vanuit dat de overige levensverzekeraars in Nederland de betreffende problematiek eveneens intern zullen onderzoeken en, waar nodig, tekortkomingen adequaat zullen oplossen.
Hiertoe zijn in dit rapport enkele best practices opgenomen, alsook richtlijnen voor het compenseren van gebleken verschillen.
Inleiding
Aanleiding onderzoek
De AFM heeft tussen juni 2005 en april 2006 een onderzoek uitgevoerd naar beleggingsverzekeringen bij een representatief deel van levensverzekeraars actief in Nederland.
Met dit onderzoek heeft de AFM gevolg gegeven aan berichten die in de zomer van 2005 (en daarna) in de media verschenen over tekortkomingen in de berekening van opbrengsten uit beleggingsverzekeringen.
Door deze tekortkomingen zijn klanten onjuist geïnformeerd over onder meer de geprognosticeerde opbrengsten.
Het adequaat informeren van afnemers van financiële producten is een belangrijke voorwaarde voor het goed functioneren van de financiële markten.
Enerzijds kan de financiële klant zijn verantwoordelijkheid pas nemen indien de verstrekte informatie adequaat is, anderzijds ondermijnt het verstrekken van onjuiste en/of onvolledige en/of misleidende informatie het vertrouwen in de financiële markten.
Daarnaast is de vergelijkbaarheid van “juiste” offertes van verschillende aanbieders voor klanten van groot belang.
Correcte informatieverstrekking zorgt voorts voor een “level playing field” tussen verzekeraars.
Doel onderzoek
Het onderzoek heeft betrekking op tekortkomingen in de verstrekking van financiële informatie in offertes, financiële bijsluiters of beleggingsoverzichten van beleggingsverzekeringen, als gevolg van bijvoorbeeld afrondingsverschillen, rekentechnische verschillen of omissies.
Het onderzoek heeft geen betrekking op de transparantie in de informatieverstrekking van alle kosten.
Het onderzoek heeft evenmin betrekking op de (overige) aspecten waaraan financiële bijsluiters moeten voldoen.
Het onderzoek van de AFM heeft ten doel inzicht te krijgen in de aard en omvang van de bovengenoemde tekortkomingen bij de in het onderzoek betrokken levensverzekeraars, een analyse te verkrijgen van het soort problemen bij deze verzekeraars en een overzicht te verkrijgen van de maatregelen die zijn of worden getroffen door de verzekeraars om eventuele tekortkomingen te herstellen.
Reikwijdte en beperkingen onderzoek
Voor de oordeelsvorming heeft de AFM gebruik gemaakt van de door de betrokken verzekeraars in het kader van het onderzoek overgelegde uitkomsten van interne analyses, berekeningen, vastleggingen, documentatie en andere informatie.
De AFM baseert haar bevindingen derhalve op de informatie die zij van de betrokken verzekeraars in het kader van dit onderzoek heeft ontvangen.
De AFM heeft gedurende het onderzoek diverse gesprekken gevoerd met alle betrokken verzekeraars.
In dit rapport zijn de belangrijkste bevindingen van de AFM opgenomen zoals deze blijken uit het onderzoek.
Sinds 1 januari 2006 is de Wet financiële dienstverlening (Wfd) van kracht die onder meer bepaalt dat informatieverstrekking over financiële producten
–beleggingsverzekeringen inbegrepen– aan de klant feitelijk juist, voor de klant begrijpelijk en niet misleidend dient te zijn.
Vóór 1 januari 2006 was de Regeling informatieverstrekking aan verzekeringnemers (Riav) van toepassing.
De Riav kende ook bepalingen die daarop toezien.
De AFM heeft de betrokken verzekeraars verzocht na te gaan of bij hen mogelijk sprake is van onjuiste informatieverstrekking aan de klanten door fouten/tekortkomingen in berekeningen van bijvoorbeeld geprognosticeerde opbrengsten van beleggings- verzekeringen.
De AFM heeft de betrokken verzekeraars verzocht indien zij tekortkomingen constateren of reeds hebben geconstateerd, deze voorvallen aan de AFM mede te delen met vermelding van de reeds door de verzekeraar getroffen of nog te treffen maatregelen, waaronder het informeren en compenseren van klanten.
De AFM heeft de betrokken verzekeraars verzocht, indien geen sprake is van onjuiste berekeningen, dit aan de AFM te bevestigen.
Beleggingsverzekeringen in het algemeen
Levensverzekering is een verzamelnaam voor verschillende individuele producten.
Hierbij kan de klant kiezen tussen een kapitaalverzekering en een renteverzekering.
De inleg voor deze verzekeringen kan worden voldaan met behulp van een eenmalige storting (koopsom) of een periodieke premiebetaling.
Ten slotte heeft de klant de keuze uit een gegarandeerd eindkapitaal (met of zonder winstdeling) of een opbouw van een kapitaal of rente door middel van een belegging.
In dit laatste geval wordt gesproken over een beleggingsverzekering of unit-linked verzekering.
Beleggingsverzekeringen of unit-linked-verzekeringen
Een unit-linked-verzekering is een levensverzekering waarvan de opbrengst is gekoppeld aan het rendement van beleggingsfondsen.
Unit-linked-verzekeringen worden daarom ook wel beleggingsverzekeringen genoemd en bieden de verzekerde de mogelijkheid om het verzekeren van verschillende risico’s te combineren met beleggen.
De premies of koopsomstortingen worden (na aftrek van de kosten en vaak met uitzondering van de premies voor het overlijdensrisico en aanvullende verzekeringen) belegd in eenheden (units) van één of meer beleggingsfondsen van de verzekeraar en/of andere aanbieders.
Een aparte vorm van een beleggingsverzekering is de universal-life-verzekering.
Deze vorm is flexibeler dan de unit-linked-verzekering.
Universal-life-verzekeringen kennen geen vaste einddatum.
De verzekeringnemer kan op ieder moment de waarde laten uitkeren of de verzekering aanpassen.
Ook ten aanzien van de premiebetaling is het universal-life-systeem flexibel, aangezien geen vaste periodieke inleg verschuldigd is[1].
Bij universal-life-verzekeringen worden de premies in hun geheel belegd.
De verzekeraar onttrekt periodiek gelden aan het depot voor administratiekosten, kosten voor overlijdensdekking, kosten voor premievrijstelling voor arbeidsongeschiktheid en dergelijke.
Zowel unit-linked-verzekeringen als universal-life-verzekeringen en combinaties daarvan maken deel uit van dit onderzoek.
Informatievoorziening aan klanten
De klant verkrijgt op diverse manieren informatie over de beleggingsverzekering.
Vóór het afsluiten van een verzekering ontvangt de klant een offerte en een financiële bijsluiter.
Bij het afsluiten van de verzekering ontvangt de klant de polis en de bijbehorende polisvoorwaarden.
In de offerte staat onder andere uitleg over de verzekeringsvorm die de voorkeur heeft van de klant, de premie en looptijd van de verzekering en de beleggingskosten.
Een aantal van deze gegevens staat ook in de financiële bijsluiter.
Deze flexibiliteit wordt ingeperkt door fiscale voorwaarden waaraan moet worden voldaan voor een geheel belastingvrije uitkering van een kapitaalverzekering bij leven.
Gedurende de looptijd van de verzekering ontvangt de klant van de verzekeraar periodiek (meestal jaarlijks) overzichten van het waardeverloop van de verzekering en de koersontwikkeling van de beleggingsfondsen.
Soms kan de klant overzichten op dagbasis krijgen via de internetsite.
In offertes en financiële bijsluiters, en bij sommige verzekeraars in beleggings- overzichten, worden voorbeeldkapitalen en voorbeeldrendementen genoemd.
Een voorbeeldkapitaal is het bedrag dat tot uitkering kan komen aan het einde van de looptijd van de beleggingsverzekering, indien het voorbeeldrendement jaar op jaar wordt gerealiseerd.
Een voorbeeldrendement is dus een rendement waarmee een voorbeeldkapitaal wordt berekend.
De rendementen kunnen in de praktijk hoger, maar ook lager uitvallen en zullen meer schommelen naarmate de beleggingsvorm risicovoller is.
De voorbeeldrendementen zijn rendementen die in het verleden zijn behaald en garanderen dus niets voor de toekomst.
Bevindingen instellingen
Inleiding
In het algemeen kan gesteld worden dat bijna alle verzekeraars (‘instellingen’) één of meer tekortkomingen hebben geconstateerd.
Zowel de oorzaken als de aard van de tekortkomingen zijn divers.
De tekortkomingen leiden ertoe dat er verschillen zijn tussen de uitkomsten van de offertes, financiële bijsluiters, beleggingsoverzichten en de polisstanden die optreden bij de verstrekking van deze documenten.
De volgende paragrafen van dit hoofdstuk beschrijven deze verschillen.
Uitkomst in de polisadministratie hoger dan offerte
Diverse instellingen hebben geconstateerd dat bij een aantal producten de uitkomst in de polisadministratie voor de klanten hoger is dan in de offertesoftware.
Deze voor de klant gunstige afwijking komt tot stand door het verlenen van gunstigere condities aan de klant dan waarmee in de offertesoftware standaard wordt gewerkt.
De belangrijkste oorzaak is dat geoffreerd wordt met hogere kosten of lagere premies dan waarmee in de polisadministratie wordt gewerkt.
De instellingen geven aan dat zij vanzelfsprekend in deze gevallen geen compensatie van de klanten vragen.
Ook zullen de instellingen voor deze klanten geen verlaging van de uitkering in de polisadministratie doorvoeren.
Uitkomst offerte/financiële bijsluiter hoger dan in de polisadministratie
Bijna alle instellingen hebben geconstateerd dat klanten bij een aantal producten in de offerte en/of in de financiële bijsluiter hogere uitkomsten gepresenteerd krijgen dan wat zij werkelijk volgens de polisadministratie opbouwen.
De belangrijkste oorzaken van de verschillen zijn het hanteren van meerdere systemen en/of rekenkernen[2] met verschillende uitgangspunten, programmeerfouten, invoerfouten, rekentechnische verschillen en afrondingsverschillen.
De offertesoftware verschilt van de polisadministratie doordat in de offertesoftware bijvoorbeeld bepaalde kosten of premies niet mee worden gerekend danwel kosten of premies anders worden berekend[3].
Door deze tekortkomingen ontvangen klanten offertes en/of financiële bijsluiters met hogere voorbeeldkapitalen (en/of een hogere voorbeeldrendementen) dan het daadwerkelijk te bereiken eindkapitaal dat uit de polisadministratie blijkt.
Tekortkomingen op tussentijdse overzichten
Diverse instellingen hebben geconstateerd dat klanten bij een aantal producten op de (jaarlijkse) beleggingsoverzichten hogere uitkomsten gepresenteerd krijgen dan
Een rekenkern is het onderdeel van het informatiesysteem waarbinnen de berekeningen plaatsvinden waarmee wordt vastgesteld uit welke delen (b.v. kosten, winstmarge, verzekering, belegging) de premie is opgedeeld.
Deze berekeningen staan centraal in het offerteproces en het polis-administratieproces.
Zie bijlage 1 voor een uitgebreid overzicht van de oorzaken van de verschillen tussen offertes en/of financiële bijsluiters en de polisadministratie.
wat zij werkelijk volgens de polisadministratie opbouwen.
De belangrijkste oorzaken van de verschillen zijn het hanteren van meerdere systemen en/of rekenkernen met verschillende uitgangspunten, programmeerfouten, invoerfouten, rekentechnische verschillen en afrondingsverschillen[4].
Door deze tekortkomingen ontvangen de klanten gedurende de looptijd van de beleggingsverzekering beleggingsoverzichten met hogere voorbeeldkapitalen dan uit de polisadministratie blijkt.
Overige verschillen
Wijzigingen in wet- en regelgeving
Eén of meer instellingen stellen dat het lastig is voor de klanten om veranderingen in de aan hun verstrekte informatie, als gevolg van diverse wijzigingen in de wet- en regelgeving, te controleren.
Voorbeelden hiervan zijn:
gewijzigd beleid rond de financiële bijsluiter;
invoering sekseneutrale tarieven bij collectieve pensioenpolissen;
invoering artikel 7a van de Pensioen- en Spaarfondsenwet (ten minste tijdsevenredige pensioenopbouw);
wettelijke wijzigingen rond de ingang van de arbeidsongeschiktheid (WAO/WIA).
Eén of meer instellingen hebben een aantal kleine tekortkomingen aangetroffen die te maken hebben met de fasering van de invoering van de relevante nieuwe wet- en regelgeving.
De oorzaak hiervan is dat soms de offertesoftware, soms de polisadministratie eerder beschikbaar is.
De hierboven vermelde tekortkomingen hebben tot gevolg dat financiële informatie in offertes/financiële bijsluiters of beleggingsoverzichten zowel lager als hoger dan in de polisadministratie kan uitvallen.
Wijzigingen van systemen/conversies
Meerdere instellingen hebben de afgelopen jaren een deel van of de gehele oude polisadministratie geconverteerd naar een nieuwe polisadministratie.
De instellingen vergelijken vervolgens de voorbeeldkapitalen op einddatum in de oude polis- administratie met de voorbeeldkapitalen op einddatum in de nieuwe situatie.
Eén of meer instellingen hebben aangegeven dat sprake is van verschillen in de uitkomsten tussen de oude en de nieuwe polisadministratie.
Deze verschillen worden volgens de instellingen verklaard door:
vervuiling in de oude polisadministratie;
functionele tekortkomingen in de nieuwe polisadministratie;
verschillen in (berekenings-)methodiek tussen de oude en nieuwe polisadministratie.
Zie bijlage 1 voor een uitgebreid overzicht van de oorzaken van de verschillen tussen beleggingsoverzichten en de polis- administratie.
Wat hebben de betrokken instellingen gedaan?
De instellingen hebben de AFM geïnformeerd over de wijze waarop de tekortkomingen voor de klanten opgelost (gaan) worden, de wijze waarop de klanten hierover geïnformeerd (gaan) worden en de interne maatregelen die de instellingen (gaan) nemen om ervoor te zorgen dat in de toekomst dergelijke tekortkomingen zich niet (meer) zullen voordoen.
Deze elementen worden in de paragrafen van dit hoofdstuk nader toegelicht.
Compenseren van klanten
Indien de uitkomsten van de offertes hoger zijn dan de polisadministratie doen de instellingen de hogere offertes gestand danwel compenseren de instellingen de klanten op een andere wijze.
Indien de uitkomsten van de beleggingsoverzichten hoger zijn dan de polisadministratie hangt het van de betreffende situatie af, of de instellingen de foutieve beleggingsoverzichten gestand doen[5].
Diverse instellingen hebben tekortkomingen aangetroffen die geen of zeer geringe materiële/financiële gevolgen voor de klanten hebben en zullen de klanten hiervoor niet compenseren.
Aangezien bijvoorbeeld producten nog niet lang op de markt zijn, zijn de tot nu toe ontstane verschillen marginaal.
Door de aanpassing van systemen zullen de ontstane verschillen niet verder toenemen.
Het compenseren danwel gestand doen van wat zij hebben beloofd doen instellingen op diverse manieren.
Eén of meer instellingen doen de offertes gestand, met daarop vermeld de hogere voorbeeldkapitalen dan op de polissen, door het financiële nadeel hiervan voor eigen rekening te nemen.
Eén of meer instellingen kopen voor eigen rekening extra units aan voor de klanten (soms op de historische datum; tegen de toen geldende beurskoers).
Voor eventuele afgekochte of beëindigde polissen voeren één of meer instellingen een herrekening uit en zullen de klanten een nastorting ontvangen, eventueel te verhogen met wettelijke rente.
Eén of meer instellingen nemen de misgelopen (niet bij de offerte in rekening meegerekende) kosten of premies voor eigen rekening danwel brengen bepaalde kosten of premies niet in rekening bij de klant bij de uiteindelijke uitkering van de polis.
Eén of meer instellingen hebben klanten in staat gesteld om opnieuw een keuze voor het product te maken, indien bijvoorbeeld onjuiste financiële bijsluiters zijn verstrekt.
Zie hierover nader in paragraaf 4.1.
Omvang compensatie
Het is niet eenvoudig om te berekenen wat de totale omvang is van de compensatie, inclusief het financiële nadeel voor instellingen door het gestand doen van te hoog gecommuniceerde kapitalen of waarden.
Allereerst kunnen één of meer instellingen het financiële nadeel nu nog niet exact berekenen, aangezien dit pas bekend is wanneer alle individuele polissen zijn uitgekeerd.
Eén of meer instellingen houden daarnaast rekening met een bepaald maximaal bedrag indien alle contracten zouden doorlopen tot het einde van de looptijd van het contract.
Ten slotte hebben één of meer instellingen het te verwachten financiële nadeel contant gemaakt.
Rekening houdend met bovengenoemde elementen bedraagt de totale omvang van de compensatie (inclusief het financiële nadeel door het gestand doen) door de betrokken instellingen thans circa €160 miljoen.
Dit bedrag is gebaseerd op door de individuele verzekeraars verstrekte informatie over de omvang van de compensatie.
Overigens is de compensatie per individuele polis in de meeste gevallen van geringe omvang.
In enkele gevallen betreft de compensatie wel substantiële bedragen per polis.
De totale omvang van de compensatie kan daarnaast worden afgezet tegen de bruto-premieinleg per jaar bij individuele producten van €16 miljard, waarbij men zich dient te realiseren dat de gemiddelde looptijd van een product rond de 15 jaar ligt.
Niet gebleken is dat de instellingen bewust een misleidende voorstelling van zaken hebben gegeven in de offertes.
Informeren van klanten
Eén of meer instellingen zullen de (ex-) klanten op het moment van compensatie per brief informeren over de tekortkomingen en de bijbehorende compensatie.
In andere gevallen kan de klant dit bijvoorbeeld zien op een beleggingsoverzicht.
Bij één of meer instellingen merkt de klant niet dat sprake is van een tekortkoming omdat de instelling de hogere offerte gestand doet, de instelling het financiële nadeel hiervan op zich neemt en de klanten hierover niet informeert.
Eén of meer instellingen zullen, gezien het zeer geringe bedrag van de compensatie, de polishouders niet expliciet informeren over de betreffende tekortkoming.
Treffen van maatregelen
Enkele instellingen hebben reeds interne maatregelen getroffen om de geconstateerde tekortkomingen op te lossen.
Daarnaast moeten diverse instellingen nog interne maatregelen treffen om te zorgen dat de geconstateerde tekortkomingen worden opgelost en om te zorgen dat in de toekomst dergelijke tekortkomingen zich niet (meer) voordoen.
Voor wat betreft de aard van deze maatregelen wordt verwezen naar hoofdstuk 5 van deze rapportage, betreffende de “best practices”.
Oordeel AFM
Oordeel AFM over compenseren en informeren
Uit het onderzoek blijkt dat bij bijna alle instellingen één of meer tekortkomingen aan het licht zijn gekomen.
Er zijn twee momenten te onderscheiden waarop een instelling foutieve informatie aan klanten kan verstrekken.
Bij het maken van een keuze om een polis af te sluiten of te beëindigen.
Dit zijn voor de klant beslismomenten.
Bij het afsluiten van de polis worden de offerte en de financiële bijsluiter verstrekt met daarbij voorbeeldkapitalen en voorbeeld- rendementen en/of garantiekapitalen.
Bij het beëindigen van de polis wordt de afkoopwaarde van de polis verstrekt.
Tussentijds, dat wil zeggen tijdens de looptijd van de polis.
Dit zijn momenten waarop klanten (potentieel) een keuze hebben om van polis te veranderen.
De informatie die op dat moment wordt verstrekt bestaat voornamelijk uit voorbeeldkapitalen.
In de onderstaande tabel en de daarop volgende toelichting geeft de AFM haar analysekader weer voor het compenseren en informeren van klanten wanneer sprake is van tekortkomingen in de verstrekking van financiële informatie aan klanten.
De afwegingen die de in het onderzoek betrokken instellingen hebben gemaakt voor wat betreft het compenseren van tekortkomingen en het informeren van klanten passen binnen dit analysekader.
Aard van de foutieve informatieverstrekking
Compenseren of gestand doen
Informeren
Verstrekking van te hoge voorbeeld- kapitalen en garantiewaarden in offertes en financiële bijsluiters.
Compenseren of gestand doen.
Informeren indien correctie zichtbaar is voor de klant.
Verstrekking van onjuiste afkoopwaarden.
Compenseren of gestand doen.
Informeren indien correctie zichtbaar is voor de klant.
Verstrekking van te hoge voorbeeldkapitalen in tussentijdse overzichten.
Indien sprake is van beslismoment, compenseren of gestand doen.
Informeren indien correctie zichtbaar is voor de klant.
Tekortkomingen in offertes, financiële bijsluiters en afkoopwaarden: gestand doen of compenseren
Voor wat betreft offertes, financiële bijsluiters en afkoopwaarden is de AFM van oordeel dat dit duidelijk informatie betreft waarmee de klant een keuze kan en wil maken.
Gezien de belangrijke rol die een offerte en een financiële bijsluiter spelen bij de besluitvorming in het aankoopproces van een product dient deze informatie altijd juist te zijn.
Een klant kan namelijk, op basis van verkeerde informatie, een onterechte aankoopbeslissing hebben gemaakt.
De correcte informatieverstrekking zorgt voorts voor een “level playing field” tussen verzekeraars.
Het opvragen van een afkoopwaarde door een klant gebeurt dikwijls met het oog op de keuze die de klant wil maken over het behouden of beëindigen van een product, waarbij de hoogte van de afkoopwaarde een belangrijke rol speelt.
In het geval een instelling een afkoopwaarde heeft verstrekt aan een klant, dient deze informatie altijd juist te zijn.
Derhalve is de AFM van oordeel dat instellingen de klanten financieel tegemoet moeten komen, indien er verschil is tussen offertes en/of financiële bijsluiters danwel afkoopwaarden enerzijds, en de polisstanden anderzijds, met nadelige materiële / financiële gevolgen voor de klanten.
Een financiële correctie kan op twee manieren plaatsvinden.
Instellingen kunnen gestand doen wat zij hebben beloofd door bijvoorbeeld de te hoge kostenonttrekking (opgerent) intern terug te storten.
Hierdoor wordt de klant in staat gesteld om de in de offerte gepresenteerde voorbeeldkapitalen te behalen, aangezien de inleg en kosten conform de uitgangssituatie in de offerte zijn.
Indien de instelling de offerte gestand doet en daarmee het financiële nadeel op zich neemt, merkt de klant niets van de wijzigingen en is het niet noodzakelijk de klant expliciet te informeren.
Daarnaast kunnen instellingen klanten compenseren door units of rente bij te storten.
In deze gevallen merkt de klant, bijvoorbeeld op het jaarlijkse beleggingsoverzicht, dat er extra stortingen zijn gedaan.
In dergelijke gevallen is het raadzaam de klanten hierover te informeren.
Tekortkomingen in tussentijdse informatieverstrekking: afweging maken
Is sprake van een daadwerkelijk beslismoment?
Indien een klant (tussentijds) foutieve informatie over een product krijgt, waarbij hij niet de mogelijkheid heeft om voor een ander product te kiezen, is generieke compensatie niet noodzakelijk.
De klant dient hierover wel geïnformeerd te worden.
Dit geldt bijvoorbeeld voor bepaalde pensioenproducten.
Duur en regelmaat foutieve informatieverstrekking
Er is een verschil tussen een instelling die al jarenlang verkeerde tussentijdse informatie verstrekt en een instelling die jarenlang alle informatie juist verstrekt en vervolgens, bijvoorbeeld door een systeemwijziging, éénmalig foutieve informatie verstrekt.
Indien deze laatste situatie zich voordoet, is het van belang of een instelling bereid is om op individuele basis de verkeerd verstrekte informatie gestand te doen, indien een klant zich meldt (na communicatie door de instelling) met de onderbouwde mededeling dat hij op basis van de verkeerd afgegeven informatie een financiële beslissing heeft genomen.
Bovenstaand analysekader leidt er bijvoorbeeld toe dat de AFM van oordeel is dat instellingen tekortkomingen in de tussentijds verstrekte voorbeeldkapitalen voor wat betreft pensioenproducten, waarbij een daadwerkelijk keuzemogelijkheid ontbreekt, in principe niet generiek gestand hoeven te doen.
Oordeel AFM over de houding en medewerking van de instellingen
De betrokken verzekeraars hebben allemaal goede medewerking verleend aan het onderzoek, onder meer door zelf intern in detail analyses te verrichten naar mogelijke verschillen.
De AFM is voorts van oordeel dat de betrokken instellingen de geconstateerde tekortkomingen voor de klant op adequate wijze hebben opgelost danwel op korte termijn zullen oplossen.
Enkele instellingen hebben reeds interne maatregelen genomen om de geconstateerde tekortkomingen op te lossen.
Daarnaast moeten diverse instellingen nog interne maatregelen treffen om te zorgen dat de geconstateerde tekortkomingen worden opgelost en om te zorgen dat in de toekomst dergelijke tekortkomingen zich niet (meer) kunnen voordoen.
Voor wat betreft de aard van deze maatregelen wordt verwezen naar hoofdstuk 5 van deze rapportage, betreffende de ‘best practices”.
De AFM waardeert het positief dat meerdere instellingen op eigen initiatief een intern onderzoek zijn gestart naar aanleiding van berichten die in de zomer van 2005 in de media verschenen over verschillen in de berekening van opbrengsten uit beleggingsverzekeringen.
Deze instellingen hebben de vragen van de AFM kunnen betrekken in hun eigen interne onderzoek.
De overige instellingen zijn naar aanleiding van het verzoek van de AFM intern nagegaan of sprake is van mogelijke tekortkomingen.
De betrokken instellingen hebben zich gedurende het onderzoek coöperatief en constructief opgesteld.
Daarnaast zijn de geconstateerde tekortkomingen in open gesprekken met de AFM besproken.
De betrokken instellingen hebben over de voorgestelde compensatiewijze en communicatiewijze overleg gevoerd met de AFM.
De betrokken instellingen hebben de afgelopen jaren te maken gehad met diverse wijzigingen in wet- en regelgeving.
De instellingen hebben aangegeven dat zij moeite hebben gehad om alle nieuwe wet- en regelgeving tijdig en op de juiste wijze te implementeren.
De AFM beseft dat de implementatie van de diverse wijzigingen de nodige tijd en middelen van de instellingen vergt.
Gegeven het belang van juiste informatieverstrekking aan klanten, hecht de AFM er aan dat instellingen voldoende aandacht geven aan adequate informatieverstrekking.
Best practices
Praktijkvoorbeelden en best practices kunnen een belangrijke rol spelen bij het oplossen van de problematiek van de verschillen tussen de uitkomsten van offertes, financiële bijsluiters, beleggingsoverzichten en polissen.
Wat bij de één goed blijkt te werken verdient navolging bij de ander.
De AFM heeft de bij dit onderzoek aangetroffen best practices weergegeven in deze rapportage.
De meeste tekortkomingen die de instellingen hebben aangetroffen zijn te voorkomen door het hanteren van onderstaande best practices.
Algemene best practices
Instellingen doen zelf actief en structureel onderzoek naar tekortkomingen en compenseren de tekortkomingen die in het nadeel zijn van de klant.
Instellingen zijn transparant in de communicatie over gemaakte tekortkomingen en de consequenties voor klanten.
Bestuurders van instellingen zijn betrokken bij de afhandeling van de tekortkomingen en het compenseren van klanten.
IT/rekenkern
Bevindingen
Bij één of meer instellingen gebruikt de frontoffice voor de berekeningen van offertes/financiële bijsluiters een andere rekenkern dan de backoffice.
Dit leidt ertoe dat er verschillen ontstaan tussen de opbrengst van de beleggingsverzekering zoals berekend in de offertesoftware en in de polisadministratie.
Bij één of meer instellingen zijn systemen onvolledig in productie genomen.
Bij de verkoop van de beleggingsverzekering is het dan niet mogelijk het product volledig te administreren.
Dit leidt ertoe dat er tekortkomingen ontstaan bij de waardebepaling van de beleggingsverzekering.
Best practices
De instelling gebruikt één uniforme rekenkern voor alle berekeningen van offertes, financiële bijsluiters, beleggingsoverzichten en polissen.
Producten worden pas verkocht als het mogelijk is om ze volledig en goed te administreren.
Van belang hierbij is dat instellingen een cultuur van “zorgvuldigheid” hebben[6].
Zie in dit verband ook het rapport van de AFM “Voortdurende Zorgplicht:
Generieke rapportage van het onderzoek naar Zorgplicht”.
Nadere toelichting
De kans op verschillen tussen de berekeningen van polissen en offertes/financiële bijsluiters is groter bij het hanteren van verschillende rekenkernen dan bij het hanteren van één rekenkern en één administratief systeem voor zowel de polissen als de offertes/financiële bijsluiters.
Het gebruik van verschillende administratieve systemen en/of rekenkernen naast elkaar maakt dat de administratie van de producten in veel gevallen niet up-to-date is.
Het hanteren van meerdere systemen of reken- kernen kan leiden tot een suboptimale dienstverlening en een moeizame beheersing van bedrijfsrisico’s.
Er zijn één of meer instellingen die, hoewel ze als uitgangspunt voor de berekeningen van offertes/financiële bijsluiters en polissen gebruik maken van één rekenkern, berekeningen uitvoeren buiten de rekenkern om.
Het hanteren van één rekenkern is geen absolute garantie voor het voorkomen van verschillen tussen de berekeningen van polissen en offertes/ financiële bijsluiters, wanneer er berekeningen buiten de rekenkern om worden verricht.
De AFM geeft de instellingen in overweging om in de toekomst te streven naar het gebruik van één rekenkern voor alle berekeningen van de offertes/financiële bijsluiters en de polissen.
Het is daarnaast van belang dat de beleggingsoverzichten voor klanten uit dezelfde rekenkern worden gegenereerd als de offertes/ financiële bijsluiters en polissen.
Indien sprake is van twee administratieve systemen maken één of meer instellingen in de polisadministratie en in de offertesoftware gebruik van een identieke rekenkern.
Echter, een identieke rekenkern is geen garantie dat er geen verschillen kunnen optreden tussen de offertesoftware en de polisadministratie, wanneer sprake is van twee administratieve systemen.
Immers rond de rekenkern kan programmatuur zijn ontwikkeld en gebouwd die zelfstandig berekeningen uitvoert.
Relevant is in dit verband het proces waarmee de offertesoftware en de polisadministratie (beide inclusief de rekenkern) worden ontwikkeld.
Instellingen dienen zeker te stellen dat de offertesoftware en de polisadministratie op dezelfde wijze en met dezelfde input hun berekeningen uitvoeren.
Tussenpersonen en instellingen
Bevinding
Bij één of meer instellingen is de rolverdeling tussen de tussenpersonen en de instelling niet volledig duidelijk en is er niet voldoende communicatie.
Hierdoor ontstaan tekortkomingen in berekeningen, bijvoorbeeld door het gebruik van onjuiste/verouderde offertesoftware door tussenpersonen.
Best practice
Er zijn korte lijnen tussen de tussenpersonen en de instelling.
Tussenpersonen worden uitgebreid ondersteund en geïnstrueerd vanuit de instelling.
De instelling zorgt dat de tussenpersonen alleen maar gebruik kunnen maken van de actuele en juiste offertesoftware, die bij voorkeur via een extranetverbinding door de instelling wordt verspreid.
Nadere toelichting
Eén of meer instellingen hebben aangegeven dat zij niet de zekerheid hebben dat tussenpersonen altijd de actuele en juiste release van de offertesoftware gebruiken.
Het is mogelijk dat er een periode van enkele maanden zit tussen het moment waarop de instelling een nieuwe softwarerelease uitbrengt en het moment waarop onafhankelijke tussenpersonen deze nieuwe release gaan gebruiken.
De tussenpersonen moeten de offertesoftware soms zelf installeren.
Eén of meer instellingen hebben aangegeven geen geautomatiseerde controle te hebben, zodat zij niet kunnen vaststellen dat door tussenpersonen offertes op basis van verouderde offertesoftware bij hen worden aangeleverd.
Enkele instellingen streven ernaar alle tussenpersonen zo spoedig mogelijk via het extranet te laten werken danwel offertes alleen nog maar online te verstrekken, zodat het bovenstaande probleem zal verdwijnen.
Andere instellingen laten alleen nog maar de interne afdeling van de instelling, op verzoek van een tussenpersoon, een offerte en een bijbehorende financiële bijsluiter vervaardigen.
De met de instelling samenwerkende tussenpersonen dienen hiertoe een verzoek in bij de betreffende instelling.
De AFM onderschrijft de bovengenoemde oplossingen van de instellingen omdat op die manier wordt voorkomen dat offertes worden uitgebracht op basis van verouderde offertesoftware die niet aansluit bij de polisadministratie.
Eén of meer instellingen leggen (een deel van) de verantwoordelijkheid voor de verstrekking van correcte gegevens aan klanten neer bij de tussenpersonen.
De AFM wijst instellingen erop goede controleprocedures in acht te nemen om eventuele tekortkomingen tussen offertes/financiële bijsluiters en polissen door communicatieproblemen tussen instellingen en tussenpersonen te voorkomen.
Instellingen blijven immers mede verantwoordelijk voor de verstrekking van correcte gegevens aan tussenpersonen en/of (eind)klanten.
In dat kader dient een instelling zelf te kunnen vaststellen dat zij haar tussenpersonen van de juiste gegevens heeft voorzien.
AO/IC
Bevindingen
Bij één of meer instellingen worden wijzigingen in het systeem of nieuwe releases niet of niet volledig getest waardoor er tekortkomingen ontstaan in de bepaling van de opbrengst van de beleggingsverzekering.
Bij één of meer instellingen vinden controles en testen achteraf plaats, bijvoorbeeld als nieuwe systemen of releases al maanden in productie zijn.
Dit leidt ertoe dat tekortkomingen niet worden voorkomen maar achteraf worden hersteld.
Eén of meer instellingen maken gebruik van een interne bevindingendatabase waarin tekortkomingen worden vermeld.
Bij één of meer instellingen is de termijn lang waarbinnen de in de bevindingendatabase geconstateerde tekortkomingen worden opgelost.
Eén of meer instellingen voeren gegevens handmatig in en één of meer instellingen voeren gegevens dubbel in, zowel in de offertesoftware als in de polisadministratie.
Hierdoor is de kans op tekortkomingen relatief groot.
Best practices
Er is een duidelijk testprotocol.
Alle wijzigingen of nieuwe releases worden vooraf getest op alle mogelijke consequenties.
Er wordt gebruik gemaakt van een volwaardige gescheiden testomgeving.
Er wordt gecontroleerd of de wijzigingen onbedoelde consequenties hebben voor het systeem.
Het controleproces is preventief en dient ter voorkoming van tekortkomingen.
Instellingen hebben uitgebreide testprocedures waarmee ze, zowel bij aanvang van de verzekering als gedurende de looptijd van de verzekering, controleren of de (financiële) informatie uit de offertesoftware en polisadministratie en de daaruit gegenereerde informatieoverzichten op elkaar aansluiten.
Geconstateerde tekortkomingen worden door de instellingen snel en adequaat opgelost.
Instellingen dragen zorg voor een (enkelvoudige) geautomatiseerde invoer van gegevens en een gebruikersvriendelijke en toegankelijke polis- administratie.
Instellingen waarborgen, door de invoering en toepassing van bepaalde procedures, dat alle bij de ontwikkeling van een product betrokken partijen gereviewed worden op hun aandeel in de ontwikkeling van het product.
Het gaat in ieder geval om een financiële, fiscale, juridische en technische toetsing.
Nadere toelichting
Hoewel sprake is van een juiste grondhouding en een goed ontwikkeld normbesef, moet bij diverse instellingen worden vastgesteld dat qua systemen de structuur en inbedding van controle en beheersmaatregelen achter is gebleven.
Hoewel procedures vaak zo zijn ingericht dat sprake is van een zorgvuldige afhandeling, zijn er verbeteringen mogelijk op het vlak van AO/IC-beschrijvingen en testprocedures.
Bijvoorbeeld de administratieve organisatie met betrekking tot het testen en de functionele beschrijving van systemen zijn onvoldoende uitgewerkt, waardoor de kennis over en de werking van deze systemen onvoldoende is gewaarborgd.
Bij beleggingsverzekeringen spelen de offertesoftware en de polisadministratie een belangrijke rol.
Het testen van deze systemen waarborgt de kwaliteit van de verzekeringsproducten en is nodig om vast te stellen dat uitkomsten van de offerte- software en de polisadministratie daadwerkelijk gelijk zijn.
Van belang is dat de testwerkzaamheden aan applicaties binnen de verantwoordelijkheid van een andere afdeling vallen dan de afdeling die verantwoordelijk is voor de ontwikkeling van deze applicaties.
Eén of meer instellingen maken gebruik van uitgewerkte testprocedures en een standaardtestset ten behoeve van een regressietest.
Hierdoor verkleint de foutkans bij wijzigingen aanzienlijk en is het eenvoudiger testen uit te voeren bij nieuwe producten en/of nieuwe releases en/of systeemwijzigingen.
Deze test rekent een groot aantal voorbeeldsituaties door, waarbij de uitkomsten worden vergeleken met de voor die voorbeeldsituaties met behulp van de bronformules vastgestelde correcte uitwerkingen.
Op deze wijze kan de instelling vaststellen of de wijzigingen in de software een onbedoelde impact hebben op reeds bestaande producten.
Eén of meer instellingen voeren bij een release met nieuwe functionaliteiten een zogenaamde “ketentest of roll-forward test” uit.
Daarbij wordt een polis uit de offertesoftware doorgezet naar de polisadministratie en wordt bekeken of alle gegevens één-op-één overeenkomen.
De AFM is van oordeel dat indien sprake is van meerdere systemen en/of rekenkernen, de instelling op zeer frequente basis een afstemmingscontrole dient te verrichten tussen de verschillende deelsystemen.
De berekende waarden uit de verschillende systemen dienen uiteraard exact met elkaar in overeenstemming te zijn.
Eén of meer instellingen controleren extra op garantieverzekeringen en beleggings- hypotheken.
Bij garantieverzekeringen berekent de instelling tussentijds of een klant
op basis van de aanwezige opgebouwde waarde het garantiekapitaal haalt.
Bij beleggingshypotheken wordt tussentijds gekeken of een klant op basis van de rendementsontwikkeling het beoogde eindbedrag haalt.
Een aantal instellingen informeert en adviseert klanten voor wie voornoemde uitkomst onwaarschijnlijk is.
De AFM onderschrijft de transparante wijze waarop één of meer instellingen hun klanten tussentijds informeren.
Dit geeft blijk van een klantgerichte aanpak, waardoor de klant eventueel (tijdig) maatregelen kan treffen.
Bij enkele andere instellingen moeten klanten en/of de tussenpersonen zelf signaleren of de voorbeeldkapitalen worden gehaald.
De AFM geeft instellingen en hun tussenpersonen in overweging om klanten, voor wie het onwaarschijnlijk is dat op basis van de rendementsontwikkeling het beoogde eindbedrag wordt gehaald, tussentijds te informeren en te adviseren.
Beleggingsoverzichten worden soms automatisch (jaarlijks) verstuurd en soms tussentijds op verzoek van een klant.
Eén of meer instellingen kunnen alleen achterhalen of een tussentijds beleggingsoverzicht intern is afgedrukt en kunnen niet achterhalen of deze beleggingsoverzichten daadwerkelijk naar de klant zijn verzonden.
Hierdoor is onduidelijk welke klanten mogelijk een onjuist beleggings- overzicht hebben ontvangen.
De AFM geeft instellingen in overweging om, bijvoorbeeld door middel van een log-file, bij te houden of een beleggingsoverzicht daadwerkelijk aan de klant is verzonden.
Compliance
Bevindingen
Bij één of meer instellingen is compliance niet betrokken bij het proces van informeren van klanten en beschikt compliance ook niet over voldoende inhoudelijke deskundigheid.
Bij één of meer instellingen zijn de bevoegdheden van compliance nog niet voldoende ingericht en uitgewerkt.
Best practices
Compliance is inhoudelijk deskundig en is betrokken bij de juistheid van de informatie met betrekking tot de opbrengst van beleggingsverzekeringen.
Compliance is betrokken bij het compenseren van klanten indien de opbrengsten van beleggingsverzekeringen onjuist zijn geprognosticeerd.
Compliance heeft de bevoegdheid om audits uit te voeren binnen de instelling.
Hierbij is van belang dat de adequate uitvoering van de Wfd wordt gemonitord.
Actuariaat
Bevindingen
Bij één of meer instellingen spelen de actuarissen (inhoudelijk deskundigen) geen rol bij de bepaling van de juistheid van de opbrengst van de beleggings- verzekeringen.
Dit gebeurt vaak door personen van de backoffice die actuarieel niet zijn onderlegd.
Best practice
Actuarissen zijn mede verantwoordelijk voor de juiste berekening van de opbrengst van de beleggingsverzekering.
Klachtenafhandeling
Bevindingen
Bij één of meer instellingen is er intern geen onafhankelijke controle op de afhandeling van klachten.
Bij één of meer instellingen is er geen analyse van klachten.
Bij één of meer instellingen wordt de klacht uitsluitend neergelegd bij de afdeling waarop de klacht betrekking heeft.
Best Practice
De instelling stelt een onafhankelijke klachtencoördinator aan.
De klachtencoördinator bewaakt de afhandeling van de klachten en registreert de klachten.
Klachten worden tijdig en structureel opgelost.
Wijziging uitgangspunten
Bevinding
Eén of meer instellingen hebben de mogelijkheid om uitgangspunten (bijvoorbeeld rekenrente of beleggingskosten) die gebruikt zijn in de offerte gedurende de looptijd van de verzekering te wijzigen.
Dit leidt ertoe dat de opbrengst van de beleggingsverzekering lager is dan berekend in de offerte.
Best practice
Wijzigingen van de polisvoorwaarden passen binnen de algemene voorwaarden van de verzekeraar en worden transparant gemeld aan de klant.
Vervolgstappen
De AFM gaat ervan uit dat er bij de in het onderzoek betrokken verzekeraars op het gebied van de verstrekking van financiële informatie over beleggingsverzekeringen thans geen andere tekortkomingen zijn.
Indien de betrokken instellingen in de toekomst desondanks tekortkomingen ontdekken, gaat de AFM ervan uit dat deze op adequate wijze worden opgelost.
De AFM gaat er voorts vanuit dat de overige levensverzekeraars de betreffende problematiek eveneens intern zullen onderzoeken en, waar nodig, tekortkomingen adequaat zullen oplossen.
De AFM wijst in dit kader allereerst op de circulaire van het Verbond van Verzekeraars aan al zijn leden van 9 december 2005.
In die circulaire heeft het Verbond van Verzekeraars de levensverzekeraars verzocht om, voor het geval nog geen onderzoek naar tekortkomingen is verricht, met behulp van een bijgevoegde checklist na te gaan in hoeverre onregelmatigheden voorkomen, en waar nodig maatregelen te treffen.
De AFM wijst daarnaast op artikel 30, tweede lid, Wfd dat stelt dat:
“de door de financiële dienstverlener verstrekte informatie is feitelijk juist, voor de consument begrijpelijk en niet misleidend”.
Foutieve offertes en financiële bijsluiters zijn dus in strijd met dit artikel.
Daarnaast stelt artikel 32, eerste lid, onder q van het Besluit financiële dienstverlening dat “een aanbieder van levensverzekeringen een consument voorafgaande aan de totstandkoming van een overeenkomst inzake een levens- verzekering, voorzover van toepassing, ten minste de volgende informatie verstrekt, namelijk de invloed van kosten ten laste van de consument op het rendement en de uitkering verbonden aan de overeenkomst”.
Tevens stelt artikel 32, eerste lid, onder r van het Besluit financiële dienstverlening dat de hiervoor genoemde aanbieder van levensverzekeringen “de kosten die naast de brutopremie in rekening gebracht worden” voorafgaande aan de totstandkoming van een overeenkomst inzake een levensverzekering, voorzover van toepassing, verstrekt.
Wanneer een verzekeraar bepaalde kosten ten onrechte niet meeneemt in de berekening van offertes en financiële bijsluiters, handelt deze derhalve in strijd met dit artikel.
De AFM zal bij haar onderzoeken naar de naleving van de Wfd aandacht besteden aan de juistheid van de berekeningen van beleggingsverzekeringen.
Indien de AFM bij een verzekeraar tekortkomingen ontdekt in de verstrekking van financiële informatie in offertes, financiële bijsluiters of beleggingsoverzichten van beleggingsverzekeringen, neemt de AFM deze bevindingen mee in haar oordeel over de instelling en de bestuurders.
Bijlage 1:
Overzicht van de oorzaken van de verschillen
Uitkomst in de offerte hoger dan de polisadministratie
Uit het onderzoek blijken de volgende oorzaken van de verschillen tussen offertes en/of financiële bijsluiters en polissen:
Eén of meer instellingen verwerken in de offertesoftware, in tegenstelling tot de polisadministratie, geen verkoopafslag bij uitkering.
Eén of meer instellingen brengen in de offertesoftware, in tegenstelling tot de polisadministratie, de afsluitprovisie niet in rekening.
Eén of meer instellingen gaan in de offertesoftware uit van een te lage total expense ratio (TER).
Bij één of meer instellingen loopt het moment van onttrekking van de beheer- en administratiekosten in de offertesoftware niet gelijk met de polisadministratie.
Eén of meer instellingen brengen in de offertesoftware een lagere risicopremie in rekening dan in de polisadministratie.
Eén of meer instellingen vermelden in de offertes en financiële bijsluiters niet dat de klant transactiekosten in rekening worden gebracht.
Via de koersen dient de klant in de praktijk wel transactiekosten te betalen.
Eén of meer instellingen passen voor de berekeningen in de offertesoftware de zogenaamde “afslagmethode” toe, waarbij de beheerkosten direct van het bruto rendement worden afgetrokken.
De polisadministratie onttrekt de beheerkosten niet op voornoemde wijze, waardoor lagere voorbeeldkapitalen worden berekend dan door de offertesoftware.
Eén of meer instellingen bepalen de risicopremies van lopende verzekeringen op basis van de actuele rentestanden.
Het is niet mogelijk om in de offertesoftware een dergelijke systematiek op te nemen.
Eén of meer instellingen werken met offertesoftware die uitgaat van een hogere rentebijschrijving dan in de polisadministratie is verwerkt.
Eén of meer instellingen berekenen in de offertesoftware de kosten over de premie exclusief de opslag voor arbeidsongeschiktheid.
De polisadministratie berekent de kosten over de premie inclusief deze opslag.
Eén of meer instellingen onttrekken in de offertesoftware de kosten in de verhouding van de fondsverdeelsleutel.
De polisadministratie onttrekt de kosten in de verhouding van de fondswaardeverdeling.
Eén of meer instellingen onttrekken in de offertesoftware de aankoop- en verkoopkosten door op de einddatum het voorbeeldkapitaal te verlagen met het totale percentage.
De polisadministratie berekent de aankoopkosten over de gehele premie (inclusief kosten) en de verkoopkosten over de beëindigingswaarde.
Eén of meer instellingen werken met offertesoftware die uitgaat van een premiebetaling voor het gehele jaar, ook indien de pensioenleeftijd in de loop van het jaar wordt bereikt.
De polisadministratie rekent met een exacte datum.
Eén of meer instellingen berekenen in de offertesoftware de jaarpremie als betaald aan het begin van het jaar om tot een voorbeeldkapitaal te komen.
Het gevolg hiervan is dat, in geval van een premiebetaling in termijnen (dus niet jaarlijks) en een gelijkmatig stijgend rendement, de offertemethode een te rooskleurig beeld geeft van de werkelijkheid.
Dit komt doordat in het aldus berekende voorbeeldkapitaal alle in enig jaar betaalde premies een vol jaar renderen, terwijl in werkelijkheid premies die halverwege het jaar betaald worden slechts voor een gedeelte van dat jaar renderen.
Eén of meer instellingen werken met offertesoftware die uitgaat van jaarrente (vooraf) en een polisadministratie die uitgaat van maandrente.
De effectieve rente in de offerte en in de financiële bijsluiters is hierdoor hoger dan in de polisadministratie.
Eén of meer instellingen bepalen in de offertesoftware de aanvangsleeftijd van een polis door van de einddatum van de polis de duur af te trekken.
De polis- administratie gaat uit van de daadwerkelijke aanvangsleeftijd.
In de praktijk levert dit een leeftijdsverschil op van maximaal één jaar.
Uitkomst beleggingsoverzichten hoger dan de polisadministratie
Uit het onderzoek blijken de volgende oorzaken van de verschillen tussen beleggingsoverzichten en de polisadministratie:
Eén of meer instellingen draaien beleggingsoverzichten uit op een andere dag dan de premievervaldag.
Op dat moment wordt ten onrechte een pro-rata deel
van de premie meegenomen in de berekening van de voorbeeldkapitalen op de beleggingsoverzichten.
Het rekenen met een te hoge premie leidt tot te hoge voorbeeldkapitalen op de beleggingsoverzichten.
Eén of meer instellingen nemen, indien een koopsom op een polis wordt gestort, de te investeren koopsom (dat is de gestorte koopsom na aftrek van risico en kosten) dubbel mee in de berekening van de voorbeeldkapitalen.
Dit leidt tot te hoge voorbeeldkapitalen op de beleggingsoverzichten.
Eén of meer instellingen stellen, bij het berekenen van tussentijdse waarden, de aan- en verkoopkosten op 0.
Dit leidt tot te hoge voorbeeldkapitalen en poliswaarden op de beleggingsoverzichten.
Eén of meer instellingen gaan bij de berekening van voorbeeldkapitalen op de beleggingsoverzichten ervan uit, dat de aanvangspremie gedurende de gehele looptijd van het contract wordt betaald.
Bij diverse contracten loopt de duur van de premiebetaling niet gelijk aan de duur van de verzekering.
Betreffende klanten ontvangen door deze tekortkoming in de programmatuur van de beleggings- overzichten te hoge voorbeeldkapitalen.
Eén of meer instellingen hebben als gevolg van het omzetten van een fonds naar een ander fonds de polissen aangepast, maar sinds de datum van omzetting bepaalde (risico)premies niet meer onttrokken aan de polissen, waardoor de tussentijdse waarde van de polissen op de beleggingsoverzichten te hoog is.
Eén of meer instellingen keren geen dividend (in de vorm van aankoop van extra units ) uit bij beursgenoteerde fondsen.
Een ander voorbeeld is het te laat uitkeren van verrekenbare dividendbelasting in de vorm van de aankoop van extra units.
In beide gevallen wordt foutieve informatie verstrekt in de vorm van onjuiste beleggingsoverzichten.
35
Autoriteit Financiële Markten Postbus 11723
1001 GS AMSTERDAM
Tel.:
(020) 553 52 00 [email protected] www.afm.nl [email protected]
http://www.afm.nl/
Indien de inhoud van dit rapport niet duidelijk is of als u omtrent de inhoud vragen heeft, kunt u contact opnemen met de AFM, telefoon 0900 5400 540 (€ 0,35 per gesprek) of een email sturen naar [email protected]. [email protected]
De tekst in dit rapport is met zorg samengesteld en is informatief van aard.
U kunt er geen rechten aan ontlenen.
Door besluiten op nationaal en internationaal niveau is het mogelijk dat de tekst niet langer actueel is wanneer u deze leest.
De Autoriteit Financiële Markten (AFM) is niet aansprakelijk voor de eventuele gevolgen – zoals bijvoorbeeld geleden verlies of gederfde winst – ontstaan door acties ondernomen naar aanleiding van dit rapport.
Amsterdam, juni 2006
Translation - English General report
Report on unit-linked life insurance
Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets
Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets
2
The Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets (AFM) oversees the conduct of, and provision of information by, all parties in financial markets in the Netherlands, ie the savings, lending, investment and insurance markets.
The statutory objective of the AFM is "to promote an orderly and transparent market process within financial markets, a clear relationship between those participating in the market and the protection of the consumer".
The AFM verifies that parties observe relevant legislation and regulations.
The AFM also advises the Ministry of Finance on introducing new legislation and regulations relating to supervising business conduct in financial markets.
The AFM may itself also introduce regulations, within the limits laid down by the ministry.
The operational objectives of the AFM are:
Promoting access to the market;
Promoting smooth operation of the market;
Guaranteeing confidence in the market.
These objectives serve not only the interests of users of financial services and products, but also those of the economy as a whole.
The public, as well as the business community and the government, depend on the financial products available in the markets for much of what they do.
Confidence in the orderly and equitable operation of those markets is crucial in this respect.
That is why good oversight is of great importance.
The AFM is guided in its implementation of objectives by such concepts as integrity, transparency, adequate provision of information, and equality.
The financial world is extensive.
That is why much of the activity of the AFM is aimed at spreading awareness of standards, that is to say, promoting better business and public understanding of the regulations, so that compliance comes from conviction.
The AFM promotes spreading awareness of standards through information on new regulations, interpretation and general observations, among other things.
The AFM asks financial institutions to evaluate themselves as to whether they make sufficient contribution to the objectives of oversight.
Controls can therefore be applied systematically: namely, where the risks are greatest.
The AFM conducts its oversight following four principles: being very clear with the facts, performing legally and financially correct analysis on the basis of these facts, making balanced decisions carefully based on the facts and analysis, and responding incisively when required.
Where the market can and wants to contribute to oversight, then the market needs to take the lead in doing so.
This is called self-regulation or self-monitoring.
Oversight is needed if all parties consider that the market alone - ie without oversight - does not contribute adequately to the objectives of confidence, access and proper functioning.
For those parts of the financial market where regulation and oversight are needed, the question arises as to the extent to which parties in the market can conduct some or all of the oversight themselves, and the extent to which external oversight is needed.
Report on unit-linked life insurance
Chapter Headings
Summary and conclusions 5
Introduction
Unit-linked life insurance in general 10
Institutional findings 12
Introduction
Policy final value higher than proposal 12
Proposal/financial information leaflet final value higher than actual policy 12
Deficiencies in interim summaries 12
Other discrepancies 13
What have the institutions concerned done?
14
Compensating customers 14
Compensation level 15
Notifying customers 15
Measures put in place 15
AFM position 16
AFM position on compensation and notification 16
AFM position on the conduct and cooperation of the institutions 18
Best practice 20
IT/calculation engine 20
Intermediaries and institutions 21
AO/IC 23
Compliance department 25
Actuarial department 26
Complaints handling 26
Revised assumptions 27
Next Steps 28
Annex 1:
Summary of the causes of discrepancies 29
3
The AFM is an independent regulatory body.
The authority to oversee conduct in the financial markets is delegated to the AFM by the Ministry of Finance.
As an independent regulatory body, the AFM has specific responsibility for conducting oversight.
The Supervisory Board of the AFM monitors the way the Executive Board carries out its tasks.
The Minister of Finance appoints the chairman and members of the Executive Board and the Supervisory Board, and approves amendments to the articles of association and the annual budget.
When dealing with external stakeholders, the AFM follows the maxim that the AFM listens to all its stakeholders.
It has an ear for argument based on fact.
Consultation plays a prominent role in dialogue with parties in the market.
The AFM has an agreement with fellow supervisory body De Nederlandsche Bank (DNB - the Dutch national bank) covering the division of tasks and working in partnership with each other.
In addition, the AFM has specific agreements with organisations in The Netherlands, and Memoranda of Understanding with supervisory bodies abroad.
At an international level, there are several partnerships and consultative bodies.
Particularly significant among these are the Committee of European Securities Regulators (CESR) and the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO).
Summary and conclusions
Between June 2005 and April 2006, the Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets ("AFM") conducted an investigation into unit-linked life insurance from a representative sample of life insurance companies operating in the Netherlands.
In conducting this investigation, the AFM was responding to reports that appeared in the media in the summer of 2005 (and since) regarding deficiencies in calculating proceeds from unit-linked life insurance.
These deficiencies led to customers being wrongly informed about projected returns, among other things.
The investigation found that almost all insurers identified at least one deficiency in the provision of financial information to customers.
The insurers concerned all cooperated closely in the investigation, for example by conducting detailed internal analysis for possible discrepancies.
In addition, all insurers concerned have, where necessary, resolved the deficiencies identified - adequately for the customer - or should be resolving them shortly.
The AFM investigation relates to deficiencies in the provision of financial information in proposals, financial information leaflets or (fund) summaries.
The AFM has asked the insurers concerned to check whether they have any such deficiencies, and to inform the AFM about (financial) measures which have been or are being put in place by the insurers to remedy any deficiency.
The insurers concerned have done this by conducting internal analysis of various deficiencies such as may arise.
The AFM has reviewed the analyses and the results.
Adequately informing consumers about financial products is an important prerequisite for the proper functioning of financial markets.
On the one hand, customers of financial products can only take responsibility if the information provided is adequate, and on the other, providing inaccurate and/or incomplete and/or misleading information undermines confidence in financial markets.
The ability to compare "accurate" proposals from different providers is of great importance to customers and also ensures a level playing field between insurers.
As a result of deficiencies in the provision of financial information for a number of products in the proposals and/or financial information leaflets, customers are presented with higher final values than what actually accrues during the policy term.
In addition, several insurers identified that customers for a number of products were presented with higher final values in (annual) fund summaries that what actually was actually accruing during the policy term.
5
The main cause of discrepancies is the use of multiple systems and/or calculation engines with different assumptions.
The likelihood of discrepancies is greater from using different calculation engines than from using a single calculation engine and administrative system, for both the policies and the proposals/financial information leaflets.
Using multiple systems or calculation engines can lead to suboptimal service provision and difficulty managing business risks.
Other causes of discrepancies include, among others, programming errors, input errors, calculation differences and rounding differences.
Given the importance of proposals and financial information leaflets, the AFM is of the opinion that proposals and/or financial information leaflets must be honoured. Otherwise, insurers should compensate customers if there are discrepancies with the policy value which have materially adverse financial consequences for the customers.
Although some uncertainty must be allowed for, the total amount of compensation from the insurers concerned (including financial losses from honouring proposals) currently amounts to approximately EUR160 million.
This amount is based on information provided by individual insurers about the level of compensation.
Moreover, compensation for each individual policy is in most cases negligible.
In a few instances, compensation for each policy involves a substantial amount.
In addition, the total level of compensation can be seen against gross premium contributions for individual products of EUR16 billion per year, against which it must be considered that the average product term is around 15 years.
We have found no evidence that insurers have given misleading impressions in the proposals.
Several insurers still have to put internal measures in place to ensure that the deficiencies identified are resolved, and to ensure that such deficiencies do not occur (again) in future.
These should consider using a uniform calculation engine, for example, for calculating all proposals, financial information leaflets, investment reviews and policies.
In addition, it is important that an insurer ensures that intermediaries are only able to use up-to-date and accurate proposal software, preferably accessed via extranet connection to the insurer.
Insurers should also ensure extensive testing procedures. Through these they should check, both at the start of the insurance and during the term of insurance, that (financial) information from the proposal software, from managing the policy and from information reviews generated from these, all match up.
The insurers concerned have had to deal with several changes in legislation and regulation, over recent years.
The insurers have indicated that they have had difficulty implementing all the new laws and regulations on time and in the correct manner.
The AFM is aware that implementing the various amendments places necessary demands on the insurers’ time and resources.
Given the importance of accurate information to customers, the AFM attaches importance to insurers paying sufficient attention to providing adequate information.
Now that the insurers concerned have completed their internal analysis and the AFM has been able to test the design, implementation and results, it assumes that there are currently no further deficiencies with insurers involved in the investigation into the provision of financial information about unit-linked life insurance.
If the insurers concerned nevertheless discover deficiencies in future, the AFM assumes that these will be adequately resolved.
The AFM will also assume that other life insurance companies in the Netherlands will also investigate the relevant issues internally and, where necessary, resolve any deficiencies adequately.
To this end, extensive best practice has been included in this report, as well as guidelines for compensating for apparent discrepancies.
Introduction
Background to the investigation
Between June 2005 and April 2006, the AFM conducted an investigation into unit-linked life insurance from a representative sample of life insurance companies operating in the Netherlands.
In conducting this investigation, the AFM was responding to reports that appeared in the media in the summer of 2005 (and since) regarding deficiencies in calculating proceeds from unit-linked life insurance.
These deficiencies led to customers being wrongly informed about projected returns, among other things.
Adequately informing consumers about financial products is an important prerequisite for the proper functioning of financial markets.
On the one hand, customers for financial products can only take responsibility if the information provided is adequate, and on the other, providing inaccurate and/or incomplete and/or misleading information undermines confidence in financial markets.
The ability to compare "accurate" proposals from different providers is of great importance to customers.
Providing correct information also ensures a level playing field between insurers.
Aim of the investigation
The investigation relates to deficiencies in the provision of financial information in proposals, financial information leaflets or fund summaries for unit-linked life insurance, as a result of, for example, rounding differences, calculation differences or omissions.
The investigation does not relate to transparency in the provision of information regarding all charges.
Nor does the investigation relate to (other) aspects with which financial information leaflets must comply.
The investigation by the AFM aims to gain insight into the nature and scope of the above-mentioned deficiencies at the insurers involved in the investigation, to obtain an analysis of the type of issues at these insurers and to form an overview of the measures which are being or will be put in place by the insurers to rectify any deficiencies.
Scope and limitations of the investigation
In arriving at its opinion, the AFM has used results from internal analysis, calculations, records, documentation and other information submitted by the insurers concerned, within the context of this investigation.
The AFM therefore bases its findings on information received from the insurers concerned, within the context of this investigation.
The AFM held several discussions during the investigation, with all the insurers concerned.
This report contains the AFM’s most important findings as they appear from the investigation.
The financial services act (Wfd - Wet financiële dienstverlening) came into force on 1 January 2006. This stipulates, inter alia, that information provided to the customer about financial products
- including unit-linked life insurance - must be factually accurate, can be understood by the customer, and is not misleading.
The regulation of information provided to policyholders (Riav - Regeling informatieverstrekking aan verzekeringnemers) applied prior to 1 January 2006.
The Riav also had provisions to supervise this.
The AFM asked the insurers concerned to check whether inaccurate information may have been provided to customers due to errors/deficiencies in, for example, calculating projected returns from unit-linked life insurance.
The AFM requested the insurers concerned, should they identify or have already identified deficiencies, to notify these cases immediately to the AFM, stating the measures already put in place or which will be put in place by the insurers concerned, including notifying and compensating customers.
The AFM has requested the insurers concerned, if there are no incorrect calculations, to confirm this to the AFM.
Unit-linked life insurance in general
Life insurance is a collective name for various individual products.
This allows the customer to choose between an endowment policy and an annuity policy.
The premiums for this insurance can be met using a single up-front payment (lump sum) or periodic premium instalments.
Ultimately, the customer has the choice of a guaranteed capital sum on maturity (with or without profit-sharing) or accrued capital or interest through investing.
The latter case refers to unit-linked life insurance.
Unit-linked insurance investment insurance
Unit-linked insurance is life insurance, the cash value of which is linked to the performance of investment funds.
Unit-linked insurance is therefore also called investment insurance and offers the policyholder the option of combining different investment risks.
The premiums or lump sums are invested (after deduction of charges and often with the exception of the premiums for the death risk and additional insurance) in units (units) in one or more investment funds with the insurer and/or other providers.
A separate form of investment insurance is universal life insurance.
This form is more flexible than unit-linked insurance.
Universal life insurance has no fixed maturity
The policyholder may, at any time, cash in the value or modify the insurance.
The universal life insurance system is also flexible with regard to the premium payment, since no fixed instalments are required[1].
Premiums are invested in their entirety with universal life insurance.
The insurer periodically makes deductions from the fund for administration costs, costs for death cover, costs for waiver of premium for incapacity for work, and such like.
Both unit-linked insurance and universal life insurance policies and combinations thereof fall under this investigation.
Provision of information to customers
The customer obtains information about the fund's unit-linked life insurance in various ways.
Prior to taking out an insurance policy, the customer receives a proposal and a financial information leaflet.
On taking out the insurance policy, the customer receives the policy and corresponding policy conditions.
Among other things, the proposal includes an explanation of the customer’s preferred form of insurance, the premium for and term of the insurance, and the investment costs.
Some of this information can also be found in the financial information leaflet.
This flexibility is restricted by taxation policy conditions that must be met before paying out on a life insurance policy entirely tax-free.
During the term of insurance the customer receives from the insurer periodic summaries (usually annual) of the cash value of the policy and progress of the yields from the investment funds.
Sometimes the customer can access summaries on a daily basis via the website.
In proposals and financial leaflets, and for some insurers in investment summaries, projected capital value and projected returns are referred to.
Projected capital value is the amount that can be paid out on maturity of the unit-linked life insurance, if the projected year-on-year performance is achieved.
Projected returns are therefore the yields on the basis of which projected capital value is calculated.
Returns may in practice higher, but also lower, and will fluctuate more, the riskier the form of investment is.
The projected returns are based on historical performance and give no assurance as to the future.
Institutional findings
Introduction
In general it can be said that almost all insurers (“institutions”) identified at least one deficiency.
Both the causes and nature of the deficiencies are diverse.
The deficiencies lead to discrepancies between final values in proposals, financial information leaflets, investment summaries and the actual policies, which are given when issuing these documents.
The following sections of this chapter describe these discrepancies.
Policy final value higher than proposal
Several institutions have found that in a number of products the final policy value for customers is higher than in the proposal software.
This discrepancy in favour of the customer is achieved by giving the customer more favourable conditions than the proposal software uses as standard.
The main cause is that it is proposed with higher costs or lower premiums than used when managing the policy.
The institutions indicate that they are obviously not asking for compensation from the customers in these cases.
The institutions will also not impose a reduction in policy benefits for these customers.
Proposal/financial information leaflet final value higher than actual policy
Practically all institutions have found that customers for a number of products were shown higher final values in the proposal and/or financial information leaflet than what was actually building up in the managed policy.
The main cause of the discrepancies is using multiple systems and/or calculation engines[2] with different assumptions, programming errors, input errors, technical differences and rounding differences.
The proposal software differs from the managed policy because in the proposal software certain costs or premiums are not counted for example, or costs or premiums are calculated differently[3].
Customers receive proposals and/or financial information leaflets with higher projected final values (and/or higher projected yields) than the managed policy actually achieves, because of these deficiencies.
Deficiencies in interim summaries
Several institutions have found that customers for a number of products were shown higher final values in the (annual) investment summaries than
A calculation engine is the part of the computer system in which calculations are made to determine how the premium is allocated (eg costs, profit margin, insurance, investment).
These calculations are central to the proposal process and the policy management process.
See annex 1 for a comprehensive summary of the causes of the discrepancies between proposals and/or financial information leaflets and the managed policy.
what they are really accruing according to the managed policy.
The main causes of the discrepancies are using multiple systems and/or calculation engines with different assumptions, programming errors, input errors, computational differences and rounding differences[4].
Customers receive investment summaries, during the term of investment insurance, with higher projected final values than the managed policy actually achieves, because of these deficiencies.
Other differences
Changes in legislation and regulation
At least one institution claims it is difficult for customers to check changes to the information provided to them, following various changes in legislation and regulations.
Examples are:
a change in policy regarding the financial information leaflet;
introducing gender-neutral rates for group pension policies;
introducing Article 7a of the Pension and Savings Funds Act (pension accrual to be at least proportional to time served);
changes in legislation regarding the incapacity for work regulations coming into effect (WAO/WIA).
At least one institution has found a number of small deficiencies regarding phasing in introducing the relevant new legislation and regulations.
The reason for this is that sometimes the proposal software, and sometimes the actual policy, are available sooner.
The above deficiencies mean that financial information in proposals/financial information leaflets or investment summaries can turn out to be either lower or higher than the managed policy.
Changes to systems/conversions
Several institutions have converted part or all of the old policy management system into a new policy management system in recent years.
The institutions then compared projected final values on maturity from the old policy management system with projected final values on maturity in the new context.
One or more institutions have indicated that there are discrepancies in final values between the old and new policy management systems.
According to the institutions, these discrepancies are explained by:
contamination in the old policy management system;
operating deficiencies in the new policy management system;
Discrepancies in (calculation) methodology between the old and new policy management systems.
See annex 1 for a comprehensive summary of the causes of the differences between investment summaries and the managed policy.
What have the institutions concerned done?
The institutions have notified the AFM about how the deficiencies are (going to be) resolved for customers, how the customer is (going to be) notified, and the internal measures (going to be) put in place by the institutions to ensure that such deficiencies do not occur (again) in future.
These elements are explained in more detail in the sections of this chapter.
Compensating customers
If the final value of proposals exceeds the managed policy, the institutions are honouring the higher proposal value or are compensating the customers in other ways.
If final values in investment summaries exceed the managed policy, it depends on the relevant circumstances whether the institutions honour the inaccurate investment summaries or not[5].
Several institutions have found deficiencies with no or very small material/financial implications for the customers and will not be compensating the customers for this.
Considering products for example which have not been on the market long, only marginal discrepancies have arisen so far.
The discrepancies which have arisen should not increase further because the systems have been adjusted.
Institutions are making compensation for or honouring the projections in various ways.
At least one institution will honour the projected final value in the proposals which exceeds the actual policy, by absorbing the financial loss itself.
At least one institution is purchasing further investment units itself for the clients (sometimes backdated; at the then current unit price).
At least one institution is performing a revaluation of surrendered or cancelled policies and customers should receive a supplementary payment, possibly plus statutory interest.
At least one institution is absorbing missed (not factored into the proposal) costs or premiums themselves or not charging the customer certain costs or premiums when paying out the policy final cash value.
At least one institution has allowed customers to choose an alternative product if, for example, inaccurate financial information leaflets were provided.
See section 4.1 for details.
Compensation level
It is not easy to calculate the total level of compensation, including the financial loss to institutions from honouring projected final values which were too high.
First of all, at least one institution cannot calculate the financial loss precisely yet, since this is not known until all individual policies have paid out.
At least one institution has made provision for a maximum figure were all contracts to continue to maturity.
Finally, at least one institution has made a cash provision to cover the financial loss.
Taking the above aspects into account, the total level of compensation from the institutions concerned is now approximately EUR160 million (including the financial loss from honouring projections).
This amount is based on information about the level of compensation provided by individual insurers.
Moreover, the compensation for each individual policy is in most cases negligible.
In some cases, the compensation level for each policy is substantial.
The total level of compensation can also be compared with gross premium deposits of EUR16 billion each year for individual products, against which it must be considered that the average duration of a product is around the 15 years.
We have found no evidence that insurers have given misleading impressions in the proposals.
Notifying customers
At least one institution will notify (ex-) customers by letter at the time of paying compensation about the deficiencies and the corresponding compensation.
In other cases, the customer might, for example, see this on an investment summary.
In at least one institution, the customer is not aware of any deficiency because the institution is honouring the higher proposal value, the institution is absorbing the financial loss and not notifying the customer of this.
At least one institution will not, in view of the very low level of compensation, expressly notify policyholders about the relevant deficiency.
Measures put in place
Some institutions have already put internal measures in place for resolving the deficiencies.
In addition, several institutions still have to put internal measures in place for ensuring that the deficiencies identified are resolved and that such deficiencies do not arise (again) in future..
With regard to the nature of these measures reference is made to chapter 5 of this report, concerning best practice.
AFM position
AFM position on compensation and notification
The investigation shows that almost every institution uncovered at least one deficiencies.
There are two distinct moments when an institution can provide inaccurate information to customers.
When choosing to take out a policy or to cancel a policy.
These are decision points for the customer.
The proposal and financial information leaflet are provided when taking out the policy, containing projected final values and projected returns and/or sums assured.
The surrender value of the policy is paid out on cancelling the policy.
Interim, ie during the policy term.
These are points at which (potential) customers have the option to switch policy.
The information provided at that point consists mainly of projected final values.
The AFM presents in the table below and explanation which follows, its analysis framework for compensating and notifying customers when there are deficiencies in the provision of financial information to customers.
The considerations with regard to compensating for deficiencies and notifying customers made by the institutions concerned in the investigation fit within this analysis framework.
Nature of the inaccurate information
Compensation or honouring
Notification
Providing excessive projected final values and sums assured in proposals and financial information leaflets.
Compensate or honour.
Notify if remedy is perceptible to the customer.
Provision of inaccurate surrender values.
Compensate or honour.
Notify if remedy is perceptible to the customer.
Provision of excessive projected final values in interim summaries.
If a decision moment, compensate or honour
Notify if remedy is perceptible to the customer.
Deficiencies in proposals, financial information leaflets and surrender values: Compensate or honour
With regard to proposals, financial information leaflets and surrender values the AFM is of the opinion that this clearly concerns information which the customer can and wants to make a choice with.
In view of the important role that a proposal and financial information leaflet play in the decision-making process when purchasing a product, this information needs to be accurate always.
A customer may have made a poor purchasing decision, on the basis of misinformation.
Accurate information will provide a level playing field between insurers.
A customer often requests a surrender value with a view to wanting to decide whether to maintain or cancel a product, so the level of the surrender value plays an important role.
Where an institution has provided a surrender value to a customer, this information should always be accurate.
Therefore, the AFM is of the opinion that institutions must pay customers financially if there is a discrepancy between proposals and/or financial information leaflets or surrender values on one hand, and the policy value on the other, which has adverse material/financial consequences for the customers.
A financial correction can take place in two ways.
Institutions can honour what they projected, for example, by refunding internally the excess costs deducted (plus interest).
This enables the customer to achieve the projected final values shown in the proposal, since the deposits and costs in the proposal match the initial assumptions.
If the institution honours the proposal and therefore takes on the financial loss, the customer does not notice anything different and it is not necessary to notify the customer expressly.
In addition, institutions can compensate customers by paying for investment units or interest.
In these cases, the customer notices that additional payments have been made, for example, on the annual investment summary.
In such cases it is advisable to notify the customers.
Deficiencies in providing interim information: Balancing payments
Is it genuinely a decision point?
If a customer receives inaccurate (interim) information about a product, where he does not have the option to choose another product, general compensation is not necessary.
The customer should be notified about this.
This applies, for example, to certain pension products.
Long term and regular inaccurate information
There is a difference between an institution that has been providing inaccurate interim information for years and an institution that for years has been providing all information accurately and then provides incorrect information once, for example because of a system change.
If the latter situation arises, it is important whether an institution is prepared to comply with the misinformation on an individual basis, if a customer advises (after notification from the institution), with evidence, that they have made a financial decision on the basis of the inaccurate information
For example, the above analysis framework means that the AFM is of the opinion that institutions do not in general need to honour deficiencies in interim projected final values where pension products are concerned, where there is actually no choice.
AFM position on the conduct and cooperation of the institutions
The insurers concerned have all cooperated closely in the investigation, inter alia, by conducting internal analyses into possible discrepancies on their own initiative.
The AFM is further of the opinion that the institutions concerned have resolved the deficiencies identified adequately for the customer, or will resolve them in the short term.
Some institutions have already put internal measures in place for resolving the discrepancies.
In addition, several institutions still have to put internal measures in place for ensuring that the discrepancies identified are resolved and that such deficiencies cannot occur (again) in future.
With regard to the nature of these measures reference is made to chapter 5 of this report, concerning best practice.
The AFM appreciates the fact that several institutions started an internal investigation, on their own initiative, in the summer of 2005 as a result of reports appearing in the media about the discrepancies in the calculation of proceeds from unit-linked life insurance.
These institutions were able to include the AFM's questions in their own internal investigation.
The remaining institutions have checked internally whether there are any deficiencies following the AFM investigation.
The institutions concerned were cooperative and constructive during the investigation.
In addition, the deficiencies identified were openly discussed with the AFM.
The institutions concerned have consulted with the AFM about the proposed compensation method and notification manner.
The institutions have had to deal with several changes in legislation and regulation, over recent years.
The institutions have indicated that they have had difficulty implementing all new legislation and regulations on time and in the correct manner.
The AFM is aware of the fact that implementing the various amendments necessarily place demands on time and resources for the institutions.
Given the importance of accurate information to customers, the AFM attaches importance to institutions giving sufficient attention to providing adequate information.
Best practice
Practical examples and best practice can play an important role in solving the problem of discrepancies between final values in proposals, financial information leaflets, investment summaries and actual policies.
What seems to work well for one deserves being adopted by the other.
The AFM has set out best practice in this report, as found in this investigation.
Most of the deficiencies identified by the institutions can be avoiding using the following best practice.
General best practice
Institutions should actively and systematically investigate deficiencies, and compensate for deficiencies which are detrimental to the customer.
Institutions should be transparent when notifying deficiencies and the consequences for customers.
Management at the institutions should be involved in handling the deficiencies and compensating customers.
IT/calculation engine
Findings
In at least one institution, the front office uses a different calculation engine from the back office, for proposals/financial information leaflets.
This leads to discrepancies arising between the final values of unit-linked life insurance as calculated by the proposal software, and from managing the policy.
Systems have not been fully implemented in at least one institution.
It is then not possible when selling the unit-linked life insurance to manage the product completely.
This leads to deficiencies in valuing the unit-linked life insurance.
Best practice
The institution should use a single calculation engine for calculating all proposals, financial information leaflets, investment summaries and policies.
Products should only be sold if it is possible to manage them fully and properly.
It is important that institutions have a culture of "diligence"[6].
In this regard, see also the AFM report "Continuous Duty of Care:
General report on the investigation into Duty of Care".
Further explanation
The probability of discrepancies when calculating policies and proposals/financial information leaflets is greater when using different calculation engines than when using one calculation engine and one management system for both the policies and the proposals/financial information leaflets.
The use of different management systems and/or calculation engines alongside each other means that product management is not up-to-date in many cases.
Using multiple systems or calculation engines can lead to suboptimal service and difficulty controlling business risks.
There is at least one institution which, even though they use a single calculation engine as a starting point for calculating proposals/financial information leaflets and policies, make other calculations outside of the calculation engine.
Using a single calculation engine is not an absolute guarantee for avoiding discrepancies when calculating policies and proposals/financial information leaflets, if calculations are being made outside of the calculation engine.
The AFM considers the institutions should in future aim to use a single calculation engine for calculating all proposals/financial information leaflets and policies.
In addition, it is important that the investment summaries for customers are generated from the same calculation engine as the proposals/financial information leaflets and policies.
In the case of two management systems, at least one institution uses a calculation engine for managing the policy identical to that used for the proposal software.
However, identical calculation engines are no guarantee that discrepancies cannot arise between the proposal software and managing the policy, if there are two administrative systems.
After all, software can be developed and built that performs independent calculations outside the calculation engine.
Relevant in this respect is the process by which the proposal software and managing the policy are developed (both using the calculation engine).
Institutions must ensure that proposal software and policy management calculation are conducted in the same way and with the same inputs.
Intermediaries and institutions
Finding
The separation of roles between intermediaries and the institution is not completely clear in at least one institution and communication is inadequate.
As a result, deficiencies arise in calculations, for example from intermediaries using inaccurate/outdated proposal software.
Best practice
There should be close connections between individuals and the institution.
Intermediaries should be extensively supported and trained by the institution.
The institution should ensure that intermediaries are only able to use up-to-date and accurate proposal software, preferably via an extranet connection supplied by the institution.
Further explanation
At least one institution has indicated they are not confident intermediaries always have up-to-date and accurate versions of proposal software.
It is possible that there is a period of a few months between the institution releasing a new software version, and independent intermediaries being able to use this new release.
The intermediaries should sometimes install the proposal software themselves.
At least one institution has indicated having no automatic controls, so that they have not been able to establish whether proposals have been issued by them through intermediaries based on outdated software.
Some institutions aim to have all intermediaries working via the extranet as soon as possible, or providing quotations online only, so that the above problem disappears.
Other institutions allow only the internal department at the institution, at the request of an intermediary, to prepare a proposal and corresponding financial information leaflet.
Intermediaries working with an institution must submit a request to that institution.
The AFM endorses the above solutions from the institutions because this will avoid tenders being supplied on the basis of outdated proposal software that is not in line with policy management.
At least one institution places responsibility (in part) for supplying accurate information to customers with the intermediaries.
The AFM points out to institutions to follow good monitoring procedures to avoid any deficiencies between proposals/financial information leaflets and policies due to communication problems between institutions and intermediaries.
Institutions remain responsible for providing accurate information to intermediaries and/or (end) customers.
In this context, an institution needs to be able to establish for itself that intermediaries have been supplied correct data.
AO/IC
Findings
Changes in the system or new versions are not, or not fully, tested in at least one institution, so there are deficiencies in determining the final value of unit-linked life insurance.
In at least one institution, checks and testing take place afterwards, for example if new systems or releases have been in commission for months.
This means that deficiencies are not prevented but are subsequently corrected.
At least one institution uses an internal findings database for reporting deficiencies.
In at least one institution it takes a long time for deficiencies identified in the database to be resolved.
At least one institution enters data manually and at least one institution enters data twice, both in the proposal software and in the policy management system.
The risk of deficiencies is relatively high.
Best practice
There should be a clear testing procedure.
All changes or new version should be pre-tested for all possible consequences.
It should use a fully-fledged separate test environment.
It should check whether changes have unintended consequences for the system.
The verification process should be preventive and serves to prevent deficiencies.
Institutions should have extensive testing procedures with which they verify, both at the start of and during the term of insurance, that (financial) information from the proposal software and policy management system and the information summaries generated all match one another.
The institutions should respond rapidly and adequately to resolve deficiencies identified .
Institutions should ensure a (single) automatic import of data and a user-friendly and accessible policy management system.
Institutions should guarantee, through the introduction and application of certain procedures, that all parties involved in the development of a product be reviewed on their part in the development of the product.
There should in any event be a financial, taxation, legal and technical review.
Further explanation
Although there is a correct fundamental attitude and a well-developed grasp of standards, it must be established at several institutions that the structure and embedding of control and management measures has lagged behind in terms of systems.
Although procedures are often so arranged that there is careful handling, there is room for improvement in the area of AO/IC-descriptions and test procedures.
For example, administrative organisation in relation to the testing and functional description of systems is not sufficiently developed, making familiarity with and operation of these systems are insufficiently guaranteed.
Proposal software and the policy management system play an important role in unit-linked life insurance.
Testing these systems guarantees the quality of the insurance products and is needed to establish that the figures from the proposal software and policy management system are actually the same.
It is important that the testing work on applications falls under the responsibility of a different department than the department that is responsible for developing these applications.
One or more institutions use detailed testing procedures and a standard test set for regression testing.
This reduces the probability of error when changes are significant and makes it easier to carry out tests on new products and/or new versions and/or system changes.
This testing involves a large number of hypothetical situations, with the results being compared with hypothetical situations using calculations from the source formulas known to be accurate..
In this way, the institution can determine whether the changes in the software have an unintended effect on existing products.
At least one institution conducts so-called end-to-end testing, or roll-forward testing, in the event of a version with new features.
In addition, a policy from the proposal software is passed on to policy management and is checked for all data corresponding one-to-one.
The AFM is of the opinion that in the case of multiple systems and/or calculation engines, the institution should perform a reconciliation between the various control systems on a very frequent basis.
The calculated values from the various systems must, of course, be exactly in agreement with one another.
One or more institutions verify warranty insurance and endowment mortgages more extensively.
With warranty insurance, an institution calculates periodically whether a customer
has sufficient capital on the basis of the value accumulated.
For endowment mortgages it is considered whether a customer will achieve the intended final value on the basis of the returns achieved.
A number of institutions notifies and advises clients for whom the above-mentioned outcome is unlikely.
The AFM endorses the transparent way in which one or more institutions notify their customers in the interim.
This shows a customer-oriented approach, which means that the customer can take any action (in time).
At some other institutions, customers and/or the intermediaries themselves have to establish whether the projected values are being met.
The AFM suggest institutions and their intermediaries notify and advise customers for whom it is unlikely that the intended final amount will be achieved on the basis of the returns achieved.
Investment summaries are sometimes sent automatically (annually) and sometimes in-between times at the request of a customer.
At least one institution can only find out if an interim investment summary has been printed internally, and cannot determine whether these investment summaries have actually been sent to the customer.
It is unclear which customers may have received an inaccurate investment summary.
The AFM suggest institutions keep a record, for example by means of a log-file, whether an investment summary has actually been sent to the customer.
Compliance
Findings
In at least one institution, the compliance department is not involved in the process of notifying customers and compliance also do not have sufficient expertise in this matter.
In at least one institution, the compliance department's authority has not yet been adequately organised and arranged.
Best practice
The compliance department should be expert in these matters and should be involved in the accuracy of the information relating to the final values of unit-linked life insurance.
The compliance department should be involved in compensating customers if the final value of unit-linked life insurance is forecast incorrectly.
The compliance department should have the authority to carry out audits within the institution.
In this context it is important to verify proper implementation of the Wfd.
Actuarial department
Findings
In at least one institution the actuaries (experts in these matters) play no role in determining the accuracy of the final value of unit-linked life insurance.
This is often done by people in the back office with no actuarial training.
Best practice
Actuaries should be jointly responsible for the accurate calculation of the final value of unit-linked life insurance.
Complaints handling
Findings
In at least one institution there is no independent internal verification of complaints handling.
In at least one institution there is no complaint analysis.
In at least one institution, the complaint is only filed with the department to which the complaint relates.
Best Practice
The institution should set up an independent complaints coordinator.
The complaints coordinator should verify complaints handling and record complaints.
Complaints should be resolved in a timely and systematic way.
Revised assumptions
Finding
At least one institution has the option to revise assumptions (for example, actuarial interest or investment costs) used in the proposal, during the term of the insurance.
This leads to the final value of unit-linked life insurance being lower than calculated in the proposal.
Best practice
Revisions to the policy conditions should fit within the general terms and conditions of the insurer and should be transparent to the customer.
Next Steps
The AFM assumes that there are no other deficiencies with the insurers involved in the investigation into the provision of financial information on unit-linked life insurance.
If the institutions concerned nevertheless discover deficiencies in future, the AFM assumes that these will be resolved adequately.
The AFM will also assume that the other life insurers also will also investigate the issue internally, and, where necessary, adequately resolve deficiencies.
The AFM refers in this context first of all to the circular from the Association of Insurers, of 9 December 2005, to all its members .
In that circular, the Association of Insurers has asked the life insurers, in case no investigation into deficiencies has yet been carried out, to examine the extent to which irregularities occur and to take action where necessary, using the attached checklist.
The AFM refers additionally to article 30, second paragraph, Wfd which states that:
"the information provided by the financial services provider is factually correct, understandable and not misleading to the consumer.
Incorrect proposals and financial information leaflets are in breach of the provisions of this Article.
In addition, Article 32(1)(q of the Financial Services Decree sates that “a provider of life insurance a consumer provides at least the following information, prior to agreeing to take out a life insurance policy, where applicable, namely the effect of customer charges on the returns and final value attached to the contract”
Also, Article 32(1)(r of the Financial Services Decree states that the aforementioned life insurance provider "advises the costs that are charged in addition to the gross premium" prior to entering into an agreement for a life insurance policy, as appropriate.
If an insurer wrongly omits certain costs in the calculation of proposals and financial information leaflets, it therefore acts in breach of this article.
In its investigations into compliance with the Wfd, the AFM will pay attention to the accuracy of the unit-linked life insurance calculations.
If the AFM discovers deficiencies in the provision of financial information in proposals, financial information leaflets or investment summaries for unit-linked life insurance, the AFM will include these findings in its findings on the institution and the directors.
Annex 1:
Summary of the causes of discrepancies
Policy final value higher than proposal
The investigation reveals the following causes of discrepancies between proposals and/or financial information leaflets and policies:
At least one institution does not factor purchasing an annuity upon maturity into the proposal software calculation, in contrast to the policy management system.
At least one institution does not factor the commission fee into the proposal software calculation, in contrast to the policy management system.
At least one institution assumes a total expense ratio (TER) which is too low in the proposal software.
In at least one institution, the point where management and administration charges are deducted in the proposal software does not coincide with the policy management system.
At least one institution charges a lower risk premium in the proposal software than in the policy management system.
At least one institution does not state in the proposals and financial information leaflets that the customer will be charged transaction costs.
The customer has to pay transaction costs in practice when making investments.
At least one institution applies the so-called "annuity method" for the calculations in the proposal software, whereby management costs are deducted directly from the gross return.
The policy management system does not deduct management costs as mentioned above, meaning lower projected final values are calculated than with the proposal software.
At least one institution determines the risk premiums for current insurance policies on the basis of current interest rates.
It is not possible to include such a system in the proposal software.
At least one institution works with proposal software that is based on higher interest rates than is processed in the policy management system.
At least one institution calculate the premium cost in the proposal software costs excluding the deduction for incapacity for work.
The policy management system calculates the cost of the premium including this deduction.
At least one institution deducts costs using the fund allocation ratio factor in the proposal software
The policy management system deducts costs using the fund value distribution ratio.
At least one institution deducts the purchase and sales costs in the proposal software by reducing the final value on maturity by the total percentage.
The policy management system calculates the purchase costs across the whole premium (including charges) and the selling costs from the surrender value.
At least one institution works with proposal software that assumes a premium payment for the entire year, even if retirement age is reached during the year.
The policy management system calculates using exact dates.
At least one institution calculates the annual premium in the proposal software as being paid at the beginning of the year in order to arrive at a projected final value.
The consequence of this is that, in the case of premium payment in instalments (rather than annually) and ever increasing returns, the proposal method paints too rosy a picture of reality.
This is because in the projected final value calculated in this way all premiums paid in any one year pay a full year’s return, whereas in reality premiums paid half way through the year only pay yields for part of that year.
At least one institution is working with proposal software using annual interest rates (in advance) and a policy management system which is uses monthly rates.
The effective interest in the proposal and in the financial information leaflets is higher than in the policy management system.
At least one institution determines the starting age of a policy in the proposal software by subtracting the policy term from the maturity date of the policy.
The policy management systems uses the actual starting age.
In practice, this results in an age difference of up to a maximum of one year.
Proceeds higher in investment summaries than the policy management
The investigation reveals the following causes of discrepancies between investment summaries and the policy management system:
At least one institution issues investment summaries on a different day than the premium due date.
At that moment, a pro-rata part of the premium is wrongly included
in the calculation of the projected final values in the investment summaries.
Calculating with too high a premium leads projected final values being too high in the investment summaries.
If a lump sum is paid into a policy, at least one institution counts this lump sum (that is, the lump sum paid in less the cost of cover and charges) twice when calculating the projected final capital.
This leads to projected final values being too high in investment summaries.
At least one institution sets purchase and selling costs at zero when calculating interim values.
This leads to projected final values being too high on the investment summaries.
At least one institution assumes that the initial premium is paid throughout the full term of the policy when calculating projected final values in the investment summaries.
With several contracts, the period over which premiums are paid does not match the term of insurance.
Affected customers are sent projected final values which are too high due to this deficiency in the software used for the investment summaries.
At least one institution has changed the policies as a result of converting from one fund to another, but since the date of conversion certain (risk cover) premiums were no longer being deducted from the policies, as a result of which the interim value of the policies on the investment summaries is too high.
At least one institution will not pay out a dividend (in the form of purchasing extra units) from listed companies.
Another example is late payment of deductible dividend tax in the form of purchasing extra units.
In both cases, inaccurate information is provided in the form of inaccurate investment summaries.
35
Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets PO Box 11723
1001 GS Amsterdam
Tel.:
(020) 553 5200 [email protected] www.afm.nl [email protected]
http://www.afm.nl/
If the contents of this report is not clear or if you have questions about the content, you can contact the AFM, telephone 0900 540 5400 (EUR0.35 per call) or send an email to [email protected]. [email protected]
The text of this report has been put together with care and is informative in nature.
No rights may be inferred.
National or international legislation mean it is possible that the text is no longer current when you read it.
The Netherlands Authority for the Financial Markets (AFM) is not liable for any consequences, such as loss or loss of profits - arising from action taken in response to this report.
Amsterdam, June 2006
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Translation education
Master's degree - King's College, London
Experience
Years of experience: 28. Registered at ProZ.com: May 2017.
In 2005 I did an MA at
London University in Modern Greek language and literature, with a
special translation component.
I have translated many different Modern
Greek texts, including commercial, legal, and literature/poetry.
Lived as a child in Germany for five years, and grew up bilingual in German. Also completed German language and literature studies at Heidelberg University (1987).
Have lived and worked in the Netherlands for extended periods since 1978, and studied Dutch translation at Linguarama in the Hague.
I have excellent English language skills. The quality of my English is frequently remarked upon by clients, as well as the accuracy of my translatio
MA from Cambridge University in English Literature (1985).
MA from Utrecht University in Durch Language and Translation
For ten years I was an assistant editor of the Oxford English Dictionary (2006-2016)
I have also worked for many years as an editor of English language texts for publication.
Also very competent in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese.
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